§ 6-300. Signals ^{[ BB | ALWD | IB ]}

Citing an authority without any preceding word to clarify or qualify its connection to the text ("no signal") represents that the citation directly states the proposition or identifies a quotation or authority with which the citation is associated «e.g.». There is a standard set of clarifying or qualifying words used with citations. Placed in front of a citation these words are italicized (or underlined). When instead they form the verb of a sentence that includes the citation they are not italicized (or underlined). No comma separates the signal from the rest of the citation, except for "e.g.," which needs a comma before and after it. Only the signal beginning a citation sentence has its initial letter capitalized. The standard clarifying or qualifying words include:

(a) Signals that indicate support.

• E.g.,
  • Authority states the proposition with which the citation is associated. Other authorities, not cited, do as well «e.g.». "E.g." used with other signals (in which case it is preceded by a comma) similarly indicates the existence of other authorities not cited.
• Accord
  • Used following citation to authority referred to in text when there are additional authorities that either state or clearly support the proposition with which the citation is associated, but the text quotes only one. Similarly, the law of one jurisdiction may be cited as being in accord with that of another «e.g.».
• See
  • Authority supports the proposition with which the citation is associated either implicitly or in the form of dicta «e.g.» .
• See also
  • Authority is additional support for the proposition with which the citation is associated (but less direct than that indicated by "see" or "accord"). "See also" is commonly used to refer readers to authorities already cited or discussed «e.g.». Generally, it is helpful to include a parenthetical explanation of the source material's relevance following a citation introduced by "see also."
• Cf.
  • Authority supports by analogy. "Cf." literally means "compare." The citation will only appear relevant to the reader if it is explained. Consequently, in most cases a parenthetical explanations of the analogy should be included «e.g.».

(b) Signals that suggest a useful comparison.

• Compare ... with ...
  • Comparison of authorities that supports proposition. Either side of the comparison can have more than one item linked with "and" «e.g.». Generally, a parenthetical explanation of the comparison should be furnished.

(c) Signals that indicate contradiction.

• Contra
  • Authority directly states the contrary of the proposition with which the citation is associated «e.g.».
• But see
  • Authority clearly supports the contrary of the proposition with which citation is associated «e.g.».
• But cf.
  • Authority supports the contrary of the position with which the citation is associated by analogy. In most cases a parenthetical explanations of the analogy should be furnished. The word "but" is omitted from the signal when it follows another negative signal «e.g.».

(d) Signals that indicate background material.

• See generally
  • Authority presents useful background. Parenthetical explanations of the source materials' relevance are generally useful «e.g.».

(e) Combining a signal with "e.g."

• E.g.,
  • In addition to the cited authority, there are numerous others that state, support, or contradict the proposition (with the other signal indicating which) but citation to them would not be helpful or necessary. The preceding signal is separated from "e.g." by a comma «e.g.».