Women and Justice: Keywords

Legislation

Постанова Кабінету Міністрів України "Про затвердження Порядку встановлення статусу особи, яка постраждала від торгівлі людьми" № 417 2012 (Resolution 'On Approval of the Procedure for establishing the status of person affected by human trafficking') (2012)


Trafficking in persons

The Procedure defines the rules for determining the status of a victim of human trafficking based on relevant information. The document requires that a victim submit an application to establish status to their local state administration. The Procedure determines victims’ rights to receive shelter, medical, psychological, and other government assistance. If the application is approved, the victim of human trafficking is issued a certificate. The requirements for establishing the status are: (i) conclusion of an illegal agreement (for example, if a person (victim) was sold by agreement as goods by one person (seller) to another person (buyer)); (ii) recruitment, movement, concealment, transfer, or receipt of a person for the purpose of exploitation, including coercion, abduction, fraud, blackmail, material, or other dependence; (iii) the applicant’s supporting documents and materials affirm their eligibility. A person whose status has been established and who has received the relevant certificate has the right to receive one-time financial assistance in accordance with the Procedure. Also, victims will receive information about their rights and opportunities, set out in their own language, as well as compensation for moral and material damage at the expense of the persons who caused it. The status is granted for up to two years and can be extended. According to official statistics for 2021, the status of victims of human trafficking was established for 47 citizens, of whom 11 are women, 36 are men, and 1 is a child. The greatest number of persons suffered from labor exploitation. The main destination countries are Ukraine and the Russian Federation.

Порядок визначає правила визначення статусу особи, яка постраждала від торгівлі людьми, за відповідною інформацією. Документ передбачає, що потерпілий подає заяву про встановлення статусу до місцевої державної адміністрації. Порядок визначає права потерпілих на отримання притулку, медичної, психологічної та іншої державної допомоги. У разі задоволення заяви, потерпілому від торгівлі людьми видається довідка. Вимогами для встановлення статусу є: (I) укладення незаконної угоди (наприклад, якщо особа (потерпілий) була продана за домовленістю як товар однією особою (продавцем) іншій особі (покупцю)); (II) вербування, переміщення, приховування, передача або одержання особи з метою експлуатації, включаючи примус, викрадення, шахрайство, шантаж, матеріальну чи іншу залежність; (III) документи та матеріали, що зібрані під час проведення перевірки і підтверджують можливість встановлення статусу. Право на отримання одноразової грошової допомоги згідно з Порядком має особа, статус якої встановлено та, яка отримала відповідну довідку. Також потерпілі отримають інформацію про свої права та можливості, викладену рідною мовою, а також відшкодування моральної та матеріальної шкоди за рахунок осіб, які її завдали. Статус надається на термін до двох років і може бути продовжений. Згідно з офіційною статистикою за 2021 рік статус постраждалих від торгівлі людьми встановлено 47 громадянам, з яких 11 жінок, 36 чоловіків, 1 дитина. Найбільша кількість осіб постраждала від трудової експлуатації. Основні країни призначення – Україна та Російська Федерація.



Розпорядження Кабінету Міністрів України "Про затвердження Національного плану дій з виконання резолюції Ради Безпеки ООН 1325 "Жінки, мир, безпека" на період до 2025 року" №1544 2020 (Order on UNSC resolution 1325 "Women, Peace, Security") (2020)


Gender discrimination, Gender violence in conflict, Gender-based violence in general, Sexual violence and rape

The National action plan for the implementation of UN Security Council resolution 1325 'Women, peace, security' for the period until 2025 was developed, in accordance with the Law of Ukraine 'On Ensuring Equal Rights and Opportunities of Women and Men', as well as Ukraine's international obligations in the field of human rights. This document aims to address: women's participation in decision-making; combating gender-based violence and sexual violence related to armed conflict, etc. As a problem that needs to be solved in Ukraine, this document defines women's vulnerability to the negative consequences of armed conflict. In particular, according to official statistics, the majority of internally displaced persons, unemployed internally displaced persons, etc., are women. In addition, the analyzed document contains the results of the study on violence 'Women's Well-being and Security' conducted by the OSCE in 2019, according to which 67% of Ukrainian women (who have suffered from violence), they have been subjected to physical, psychological, or sexual violence by the time they are 15 years old. The Ministry of Social Policy of Ukraine is the executive body responsible for the implementation of the National action plan. This document includes the following strategic goals: ensuring the protection of women from sexual and gender-based violence (during armed conflict and peacetime); ensuring the process of post-conflict recovery; development and implementation of the transitional justice system based on the principles of ensuring equal rights and opportunities for women and men, etc. In addition, the National Plan includes the obligation of the Ministry of Social Policy to publish an annual report on its implementation for public discussion on its official website. But, at the same time, the website of this body contains the latest report for 2020 only.

Національний план дій розроблено відповідно до Закону України "Про забезпечення рівних прав та можливостей жінок і чоловіків", а також міжнародних зобов’язань України у сфері прав людини. Цей документ спрямований на забезпечення: участі жінок у прийнятті рішень; боротьби із ґендерно зумовленим насильством та сексуальним насильством, пов’язаним зі збройним конфліктом тощо. Як проблему, що потребує вирішення в Україні, цей документ визначає вразливість жінок до негативних наслідків збройного конфлікту. Зокрема, згідно з офіційною статистикою, більшість внутрішньо переміщених осіб, безробітних внутрішньо переміщених осіб тощо становлять жінки. Крім цього, аналізований документ містить результати дослідження з питань насильства "Жіноче благополуччя та безпека", проведеного ОБСЄ у 2019 році, згідно з яким 67% українських жінок (які постраждали від насильства) зазнавали фізичного, психологічного чи сексуального насильства у віці до 15 років. Органом виконавчої влади, відповідальним за реалізацію Національного плану дій, є Міністерство соціальної політики України. Цей документ містить такі стратегічні цілі: забезпечення захисту жінок від сексуального та ґендерно зумовленого насильства (під час збройного конфлікту та мирний час); забезпечення процесу постконфліктного відновлення; розвиток та впровадження системи правосуддя перехідного періоду, що заснована на принципах забезпечення рівних прав і можливостей жінок і чоловіків, тощо. Крім того, Національний план містить обов’язок Міністерства соціальної політики публікувати щорічний звіт про його виконання для громадськості. обговорення на офіційному сайті. Але, при цьому, на сайті цього органу розміщено останній звіт лише за 2020 рік.



Redress for Women Resident in Certain Institutions (Amendment) Act 2019 (2019)


Gender discrimination

The 2019 Act made the 2015 Act’s (available here) health benefits available to a broader group of women – including those who had worked in 'the institutions covered by the Magdalen Restorative Justice ex-gratia Scheme' while residing in certain adjoining institutions (Section 2).



Redress for Women Resident in Certain Institutions Act 2015 (2015)


Gender discrimination

The 2015 Act provides for free health services for women who worked in Magdalen laundries (institutions ostensibly intended to house and employ ‘fallen’ women). Its Schedule provides for the 'Relevant Institutions' for the purposes of identifying women entitled to the provision of services. The 2015 Act was updated in 2019 (available here) to expand the group of women eligible for benefits under the Act.



Constitution of Egypt (2014)


Employment discrimination, Gender discrimination, Gender-based violence in general

Article 11 requires that the state guarantee equality between women and men in all civil, political, economic, social, and cultural rights in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution. The state must work to adopt measures ensuring the proportional representation of women in the houses of parliament, as determined by the constitution. In addition, the state must ensure women’s rights in pursuing public employment, employment in the senior management of the state, and appointment in judicial agencies without discrimination. The state is committed to the protection of women against all forms of violence and guarantees the empowerment of women in reconciling familial duties and professional obligations. Article 53 mandates that all citizens enjoy equality under the law, equally in their rights, freedoms, and general obligations, without discrimination on the basis of religion, faith, sex, origin, race, color, language, disability, economic status, political affiliation, geography, or otherwise. Such discrimination, as well as the incitement of hate, constitutes a crime punishable under the law. The state is committed to adopting the necessary measures to eliminate all forms of discrimination, and the law establishes a special independent commission to this end. English translation available at: https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Egypt_2014.pdf.



Ley 1160 de noviembre 26, 1997 (modifica el Código Penal) (1997)


Custodial violence, Domestic and intimate partner violence, Sexual harassment, Sexual violence and rape, Statutory rape or defilement, Trafficking in persons

This law amends Paraguay’s Criminal Code and establishes (among other things) penalties for (i) sexual harassment, article 133; (ii) domestic violence, article 229; (iii) sexual coercion, including sexual abuse without intercourse, article 128; (iv) human trafficking, article 129; (v) sexual abuse of defenseless victims, article 130; and (vi) sexual abuse of persons held in custody, children under 14, and/or persons under guardianship –articles 130, 131, 135, 136, 137 and 230.

Esta ley modifica el Código Penal de Paraguay y establece, entre otras, penas por (i) acoso sexual, artículo 133; (ii) violencia intrafamiliar, artículo 229; (iii) coacción sexual, incluido el abuso sexual sin penetración, artículo 128; (iv) trata de personas, artículo 129; (v) abuso sexual de víctimas indefensas, artículo 130; y (vi) abuso sexual de personas privadas de libertad, menores de 14 años y/o personas bajo tutela –artículos 130, 131, 135, 136, 137 y 230.



Ley No 1600 de 2000 en contra de la violencia doméstica de octubre 6, 2000 (2000)


Domestic and intimate partner violence

This law promotes protection for victims of domestic violence who have suffered physical or psychological aggression from any of the members of the family, whether or not they cohabitate. Protection orders, as precautionary measures, shall be granted by a ‘Peace Judge’ (Juez de Paz). This law also regulates other support measures for the victim-survivor, such as the immediate attention and health care by the public health agencies.

Esta ley promueve la protección de las víctimas de violencia doméstica que hayan sufrido agresiones físicas o psíquicas por parte de alguno de los miembros de la familia, convivan o no. Las órdenes de protección, como medidas cautelares, serán otorgadas por un Juez de Paz. Esta ley también regula otras medidas de apoyo a la víctima-sobreviviente, como la atención inmediata y el cuidado de la salud por parte de los organismos públicos de salud.



Ley 4788 de 2012 en contra del tráfico de personas de diciembre 13, 2012 (2012)


Sexual violence and rape, Trafficking in persons

This law prevents and punishes human trafficking perpetrated in Paraguayan territory and abroad, in any of its forms. It also protects and assists victims by strengthening public actions as a response against this crime. The law criminalizes with eight years of imprisonment any conduct intended to capture or transport victims with the purposes of sexual exploitation, slavery, or organ trafficking. The years of imprisonment could increase when aggravating circumstances are present. In case of conviction, the law also allows courts to set any compensation for the victim, at the expense of the convicted.

Esta ley previene y sanciona la trata de personas perpetrada en el territorio paraguayo y en el exterior, en cualquiera de sus formas. También protege y asiste a las víctimas fortaleciendo las acciones públicas como respuesta a este delito. La ley tipifica con ocho años de prisión cualquier conducta tendiente a la captura o transporte de víctimas con fines de explotación sexual, esclavitud o tráfico de órganos. Los años de prisión podrán aumentar cuando concurran circunstancias agravantes. En caso de condena, la ley también permite que los tribunales fijen alguna indemnización para la víctima, a expensas del condenado.



Ley para la Protección de las Mujeres contra Todas las Formas de Violencia Nº 5777 de 2016, diciembre 29, 2016 y Decreto Nº 6973 of 2017 que reglaenta la Ley Nº 5777 de 2016, marzo 27, 2017 (2016)


Domestic and intimate partner violence, Gender discrimination, Gender-based violence in general

This law seeks to promote and guarantee women’s right to live free from violence. Its purpose is to promote prevention and protection strategies, sanctions, and integral reparation measures for any kind of violence exercised against women. This law fosters public policies to prevent and remediate different forms of violence, such as psychological, sexual, and physical violence. It also assigns broad responsibilities to each Ministry and Governmental Agency to support the fight against discrimination. The law provides both for protection measures for women that are victims of abuse, such as specific agencies to channel the claims; and penalties for abusers, for instance from 10 to 30 years of imprisonment for femicide. In turn, Decree 6973 specifies that interpretation and application of Law 5777 of 2016 shall provide the broadest protection for women subject to violence. Subsequently, no legal provision may deny, undermine, or limit the rights guaranteed therein. The Decree sets specific courses of action authorities must undertake to prevent violence against women and particular procedures to accomplish that goal. Romantic, platonic, and other sorts of intra-family relationships are considered domestic. For these purposes, marriage is not a requirement.

Esta ley busca promover y garantizar el derecho de las mujeres a gozar de una vida libre de violencia. Su finalidad es promover estrategias de prevención y protección, sanción y medidas de reparación integral frente a cualquier tipo de violencia contra las mujeres. Esta ley fomenta políticas públicas para prevenir y remediar diferentes formas de violencia, como la violencia psicológica, sexual y física. También asigna amplias responsabilidades a cada Ministerio y agencia gubernamental para apoyar la lucha contra la discriminación. La ley prevé tanto medidas de protección para las mujeres que son víctimas de maltrato, como organismos específicos para canalizar las denuncias y penas para los abusadores, por ejemplo, de 10 a 30 años de prisión por feminicidio. A su vez, el Decreto 6973 especifica que la interpretación y aplicación de la Ley 5777 de 2016 brindará la más amplia protección a las mujeres víctimas de violencia. En consecuencia, ninguna disposición legal podrá negar, menoscabar o limitar los derechos en ella garantizados. El Decreto establece cursos de acción específicos que las autoridades deben emprender para prevenir la violencia contra las mujeres y procedimientos particulares para lograr ese objetivo. Las relaciones intrafamiliares, románticas y similares se consideran domésticas. A estos efectos, el matrimonio no es un requisito.



Constitución de la República de Paraguay (1992)


Domestic and intimate partner violence, Gender discrimination

Article 48 states that both men and women have equal civil, political, social, economic and cultural rights. Articles 49 to 59 protect the family and the rights of each member of its members. In turn, article 60 states that government authorities must promote public policies to prevent any kind of violence within the family unit. Article 89 provides for special labor protections for pregnant and lactating women, who cannot be dismissed by their employers. Article 115 supports peasant woman by allowing their participation in public debates on rural matters. Article 117 promotes the right of women to access public positions and perform as public servants.

El artículo 48 establece que tanto hombres como mujeres tienen los mismos derechos civiles, políticos, sociales, económicos y culturales. Los artículos 49 a 59 protegen la familia y los derechos de cada uno de sus miembros. A su vez, el artículo 60 establece que las autoridades gubernamentales deben promover políticas públicas para prevenir cualquier tipo de violencia dentro de la unidad familiar. El artículo 89 prevé protecciones laborales especiales para las mujeres embarazadas y lactantes, que no pueden ser despedidas por sus empleadores. El artículo 115 apoya a la mujer campesina al permitir su participación en los debates públicos sobre asuntos rurales. El artículo 117 promueve el derecho de las mujeres a acceder a cargos públicos y desempeñarse como servidoras públicas.



Ley 1719 de junio 18, 2014 (2014)


Gender violence in conflict, Sexual violence and rape, Statutory rape or defilement

This law modified some articles of Law 599 from 2000 and 906 from 2004, and adopted measures that expanded access to justice for victims of sexual violence, especially for those who experienced it during the armed conflict. As such, it stated the conduct and behaviors that amount to sexual violence crimes and the way they must be judicialized. Furthermore, it established that victims of sexual violence have the right to receive comprehensive compensation and reparation upon their individualized the damages.

Esta ley modificó algunos artículos de la Ley 599 de 2000 y 906 de 2004, y adoptó medidas que ampliaron el acceso a la justicia de las víctimas de violencia sexual, especialmente de aquellas que la vivieron durante el conflicto armado. En tal sentido, señaló las conductas y comportamientos que constituyen delitos de violencia sexual y la forma en que deben ser judicializados. Asimismo, estableció que las víctimas de violencia sexual tienen derecho a recibir una indemnización y reparación integral sobre la base de los daños y perjuicios individualizados.



Decreto 1930 de septiembre 6, 2013 (2013)


Gender violence in conflict

This Decree adopted the National Public Policy of Gender Equity (‘Política Pública Nacional de Equidad de Género’). It aims for the development of specific plans and programs that guarantee the rights of forcibly displaced women, including their right to a violence-free life. The policy also acknowledged the importance of the differential approach from the gender perspective, taking into account the particularities arising out of urban and rural context, Afro-Colombian, indigenous, and peasant women. In turn, the Decree created a cross-sectional commission in charge of the coordinating the implementation and technical and operational follow-up of the National Public Policy on Gender Equality.

Este Decreto adoptó la Política Pública Nacional de Equidad de Género. Esta tiene como objetivo el desarrollo de planes y programas específicos que garanticen los derechos de las mujeres que han sido desplazadas forzosamente, incluyendo su derecho a una vida libre de violencia. La política también reconoció la importancia del enfoque diferencial desde la perspectiva de género, tomando en cuenta las particularidades que surgen del contexto urbano y rural, las mujeres afrocolombianas, indígenas y campesinas. A su vez, el Decreto creó una comisión transversal encargada de coordinar la implementación y el seguimiento técnico y operativo de la Política Pública Nacional de Igualdad de Género.



Ley 1542 de julio 5 de 2012 (2012)


Domestic and intimate partner violence, Gender-based violence in general

This law extended the powers of authorities in investigations of alleged crimes of violence against women as well as amended the domestic violence and food assistance provisions, as contained in articles 229 and 233 of the Criminal Code. With the issuance of this law, the prosecutor is allowed to engage in investigations of the aforementioned crimes at the moment it learns from the conduct in any manner, thus, the prosecutor no longer has to wait until someone presses charges to start the correspondent investigations.

Esta ley amplió las facultades de las autoridades en las investigaciones de presuntos delitos de violencia contra la mujer y modificó las disposiciones sobre violencia doméstica y asistencia alimentaria, contenidas en los artículos 229 y 233 del Código Penal. Con la expedición de esta ley el fiscal puede iniciar investigaciones de los delitos antes mencionados en el momento en que tenga conocimiento de la conducta de cualquier manera, por lo que el fiscal ya no tiene que esperar a que alguien presente cargos para iniciar las investigaciones correspondientes.



Decreto 164 de enero 25, 2010 (2010)


Gender-based violence in general

This decree created a cross-sectional commission called the ‘Mesa Interinstitucional para Erradicar la Violencia contra las Mujeres’. Its purpose is to join efforts for the coordination and cooperation between public entities in order to achieve comprehensive and accessible quality care for women victims of any kind of violence. The commission is comprised by the ministries and directors of public agencies from several sections, including technology, education, culture, justice, among others.

Este decreto creó una comisión interinstitucional denominada ‘Mesa Interinstitucional para Erradicar la Violencia contra las Mujeres’. Su finalidad es consolidar esfuerzos para la coordinación y cooperación entre las entidades públicas, a fin de lograr una atención integral, accesible y de calidad a las mujeres víctimas de cualquier tipo de violencia. La comisión está integrada por los ministerios y directores de organismos públicos de varios sectores, incluyendo tecnología, educación, cultura, justicia, entre otros.



Ley 1257 de diciembre 4, 2008 (2008)


Gender discrimination, Gender-based violence in general

This law enacted rules for the prevention and sanction of several forms of violence and discrimination against women. It established provisions that guarantee all women i) a life free of violence, both in the public and private sectors, ii) the exercise of their rights granted both by the domestic and the international legal systems, iii) access to administrative and judicial procedures for protection and attention, and iv) the adoption of public policies against violence and discrimination.

Esta ley promulgó normas para la prevención y sanción de diversas formas de violencia y discriminación contra la mujer. Estableció disposiciones que garantizan a todas las mujeres i) una vida libre de violencia, tanto en el sector público como en el privado, ii) el ejercicio de los derechos que les otorgan tanto el ordenamiento jurídico interno como el internacional, iii) el acceso a los procedimientos administrativos y judiciales para su protección y atención, y iv) la adopción de políticas públicas contra la violencia y la discriminación.



Ley 731 de enero 14, 2002 (2002)


Gender discrimination

The purpose of this law is to improve the quality of life of rural women, prioritizing low-income and economically vulnerable women. It promotes and fosters equality between rural men and women, while containing provisions regarding social security, education, and training. As such, the law sets forth i) the right of rural women to participate in financing funds for the development of rural sectors, ii) subsidies in money or kind, iii) programs for adequate education for rural women and iii) their equitable participation in different decision-making, planning, and monitoring bodies at the territorial level.

El objeto de esta ley es mejorar la calidad de vida de las mujeres campesinas, priorizando a las mujeres de escasos recursos y económicamente vulnerables. Promueve y fomenta la igualdad entre hombres y mujeres rurales, al tiempo que contiene disposiciones en materia de seguridad social, educación y capacitación. Así, la ley establece i) el derecho de las mujeres rurales a participar en fondos de financiamiento para el desarrollo de los sectores rurales, ii) subsidios en dinero o en especie, iii) programas para una adecuada educación de las mujeres rurales y iii) su participación equitativa en diferentes órganos de decisión, planificación y seguimiento a nivel territorial.



Ley 294 de Julio 16, 1996 (1996)


Domestic and intimate partner violence

This law aims to develop article 42 of the Constitution which establishes standards to prevent, remedy, and punish domestic violence. The Law stipulates the behaviors considered violative of structured harmony/unity within a family, protective measures against domestic violence, medical and physiological assistance for victims, and sanctions by the courts against the aggressor.

Esta ley tiene por objeto desarrollar el artículo 42 de la Constitución que establece normas para prevenir, remediar y sancionar la violencia intrafamiliar. La Ley estipula las conductas consideradas violatorias de la armonía y unidad dentro de un núcleo familia, las medidas de protección contra la violencia doméstica, la asistencia médica y fisiológica a las víctimas y las sanciones judiciales contra el agresor.



Ley 82 de noviembre 3, 1993 (1993)


Gender discrimination

Law 82 provides support measures for women serving as heads of the family unit or household. The law is intended to guarantee adequate living conditions and promote equity and social participation of women. Assistance is provided in the form of education, health, housing, credit incentive benefits, among others.

La Ley 82 establece medidas de apoyo a las mujeres que se desempeñan como madres cabeza de familia. La ley tiene por objeto garantizar condiciones de vida adecuadas y promover la equidad y la participación social de las mujeres. La asistencia se brinda en forma de beneficios de educación, salud, vivienda, incentivos crediticios, entre otros.



Health (Regulation of Termination of Pregnancy) Act (2018)


Abortion and reproductive health rights

The 2018 Act permits (i) abortion during the first 12 weeks of pregnancy by a medical practitioner who has a certified, reasonable good-faith opinion that the pregnancy has not exceeded 12 weeks (Section 12); (ii) where two medical practitioners have a good-faith opinion that that there is a risk to the life, or of serious harm to the health, of the pregnant woman, that the fetus has not yet reached viability, and that it is appropriate to carry out the termination of pregnancy to avert these risks (Section 9), or that there is a condition affecting the fetus that is likely to lead to the death of the fetus either before, or within 28 days of, birth (Section 11); or (iii) where a single medical practitioner has a good-faith opinion that there is an immediate risk to the life, or serious harm to the health, of the pregnant woman and that it is immediately necessary to terminate the pregnancy in order to avoid that risk (Section 10). The Act also makes certain services, like medical surgery and midwifery, available to women without charge for the purpose of terminating a pregnancy in accordance with Sections 9, 10, 11, or 12. Under the Act, it is an offense for anyone other than the pregnant woman herself to intentionally terminate a pregnancy, or supply the means for doing so, other than in accordance with the Act, or to aid or abet such an offense (Section 23(4)). Penalties for offenses include fines and imprisonment up to 14 years (Section 23); there are also provisions for offenses committed by a corporate body (Section 24). The 2018 Act also repeals the Regulation of Information (Services outside the State for Termination of Pregnancies) Act 1995 and the Protection of Life During Pregnancy Act 2013.



Krašto apsaugos ministro 2005 m. gegužės 9 d. įsakymas Nr. V-561 „Dėl Lietuvos karių etikos kodekso patvirtinimo“ (Order of the Minister of National Defense "On Approval of the Code of Ethics for Lithuanian Military") (2005)


Employment discrimination, Gender discrimination, LGBTIQ

In 2015, the Lithuanian Military Code of Ethics was amended to include the obligation to “respect and protect the dignity and fundamental rights and freedoms of every human being, regardless of gender, race, nationality, language, origin, social status, religion, belief, opinion, age, sexual orientation, disability, ethnicity, religion.” The original version did not expressly include protection against discrimination based on gender or sexual orientation.

Lietuvos karo etikos kodeksas buvo pakeistas 2015 m. įtraukiant pareigą „gerbti ir ginti kiekvieno žmogaus orumą bei pagrindines teises ir laisves, neatsižvelgiant į jo lytį, rasę, tautybę, kalbą, kilmę, socialinę padėtį, tikėjimą, įsitikinimus ar pažiūras, amžių, lytinę orientaciją, negalią, etninę priklausomybę, religiją“. Pirminėje versijoje nebuvo aiškiai numatyta apsauga nuo diskriminacijos dėl lyties ar seksualinės orientacijos.



Vaiko teisių apsaugos pagrindų įstatymas (Law on Fundamentals of Protection of the Rights of the Child) (1996)


Domestic and intimate partner violence, International law

The legislation implements the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, which the Lithuanian Parliament ratified in 1995. The Act sets out the rights of a child and defines neglect, physical, psychological, and sexual abuse. In 2019, the text was amended to include a clause on the prioritization of biological family, which means that the separation of children and parents against their will is only allowed in “extreme cases,” where it is “unavoidable and necessary to protect a child from real danger to his physical and psychological security, health, or life and when there is no other recourse to achieve such protection.”

Šiuo teisės aktu įgyvendinama Jungtinių Tautų Vaiko Teisių konvencija, kurią Lietuvos Seimas ratifikavo 1995 metais. Šis įstatymas nustato vaiko teises ir apibrėžia nepriežiūrą, fizinę, psichologinę ir seksualinę prievartą. Tekstas buvo iš dalies pakeistas 2019 m., įtraukiant nuostatą dėl biologinės šeimos prioriteto, kuri reiškia, kad vaikų ir tėvų atskyrimas prieš jų valią leidžiamas tik „kraštutiniais atvejais“, kai „neišvengiama ir būtina apsaugoti vaiką nuo realaus pavojaus jo fiziniam ir psichologiniam saugumui, sveikatai ar gyvybei ir kai nėra kitų priemonių tokiai apsaugai pasiekti“.



Išmokų vaikams įstatymas (Law on Benefits for Children) (1994)


Property and inheritance rights

The legislation sets out various child benefits, such as a one-time payment for the birth or adoption of a child (EUR 462 in 2022) and entitlement to a monthly payment until a child reaches 18 years old (EUR 73,5 in 2022).

Šiame teisės akte nustatytos įvairios išmokos vaikui, pavyzdžiui, vienkartinė išmoka už vaiko gimimą ar įvaikinimą (462 EUR 2022 m.) ir teisė į mėnesinę išmoką, kol vaikui sueis 18 metų (73,5 EUR 2022 m.).



Moterų ir vyrų lygių galimybių įstatymas (Law on Equal Opportunities for Women and Men) (1998)


Employment discrimination, Gender discrimination, Sexual harassment

The purpose of the Equal Opportunities Act is to prohibit any discrimination, harassment, or sexual harassment based on gender within employment, education, consumer protection, social security schemes, and involvement in organizations. It also established a duty of state and municipal institutions, educational establishments, and employers to actively implement equal rights for women and men. It defines the different types of discrimination and establishes that the burden of proving that equal rights were not violated rests within the person or institution against whom a complaint was filed. Under Article 24, a person who has suffered such discrimination has the right to demand pecuniary and non-pecuniary damages following the Civil Code. English translation available here.

Lygių galimybių įstatymo tikslas yra uždrausti bet kokią diskriminaciją, priekabiavimą ar seksualinį priekabiavimą dėl lyties darbe, švietimo institucijose, skelbimuose, socialinės apsaugos sistemoje ir organizacijose. Taip pat nustatyta valstybės ir savivaldybių institucijų, švietimo įstaigų ir darbdavių pareiga aktyviai įgyvendinti lygias moterų ir vyrų teises. Teisės akte apibrėžiamos skirtingos diskriminacijos rūšys ir nustatoma, kad pareiga įrodyti, kad lygios teisės nebuvo pažeistos, tenka asmeniui ar institucijai, prieš kurią buvo pateiktas skundas. Pagal straipsnį 24, asmuo, patyręs tokią diskriminaciją, turi teisę reikalauti turtinės ir neturtinės žalos atlyginimo pagal civilinį kodeksą.



Diretiva n. 5/2019, emitida pelo Ministério Público - Procuradoria-Geral da República (2019)


Domestic and intimate partner violence

This Directive from the Federal Prosecutor's Office establishes specific procedures to be followed by the judges and prosecutors when handling reports of domestic violence crimes. Notably, Section I.4 of the Directive states that, in analyzing the facts, when in doubt, the authorities should qualify the offense as domestic violence, unless unequivocal evidence establishes that another crime was committed. Section II imposes that, when the judge or the prosecutor become aware of the accusation of domestic violence, they must carry out or order the criminal police body to carry out, in a deliberate manner and by the most expeditious means, the specific procedural acts in the shortest possible time, without exceeding 72 hours, to take measures to protect the victim and protection measures for the victim and the promotion of coercive measures against the accused.

A directiva estabelece procedimento que deverão ser seguidos pelos Magistrados e membros do Ministério Público relacionados aos crimes de violência doméstica. Dentre os procedimentos, destaca-se a Seção I.4 que prevê que “sempre que, aquando do registo de inquérito, se suscita dúvida quanto à qualificação como violência doméstica da factualidade subjacente, deve aquela prevalecer, mantendo -se a mesma até ao momento em que seja inequívoco enquadramento diverso.” Além disso, a Seção II impõe que, quando o juiz ou o promotor tomar conhecimento da acusação de violência doméstica, eles devem realizar ou ordenar ao corpo de polícia criminal que realize, de forma discriminada e da maneira mais rápida possível, os atos processuais específicos no menor tempo possível, sem exceder 72 horas, para tomar medidas de proteção à vítima e medidas de proteção para a vítima e a promoção de medidas coercitivas contra o acusado.



Plano Nacional de Acção Para Prevenção e Combate à Violência Contra a Mulher 2008-2012 (National Plan of Action for Preventing and Combating Violence Against Women) (2008)


Domestic and intimate partner violence, Gender-based violence in general, International law, Sexual violence and rape, Statutory rape or defilement

The plan outlines the materialization of the National Plan for the Advancement of Women (Plano Nacional para o Avanço da Mulher) by mapping out its objectives, finances, and progress evaluations given specific deadlines. It focuses on expanding services available to victims of domestic, sexual, physical, and psychological violence; improving institutions to educate the public on gender-based violence; implementing advocacy strategies to prevent and combat violence against women; and establishing multi-sector mechanisms to intervene in violent situations in which women may find themselves. For example, as women are 57% of all HIV-positive people in Mozambique, the plan provides for an STI, including HIV, prophylaxis service for victims of sexual violence. Each sector is in charge of managing its own budget in accordance with its objectives, but the Mozambican government and the Economic and Social Plan (Plano Económico e Social) are expected to be driving forces in attracting more partners and resources for the plan. The timeline is set for five years, with the Monitoring and Evaluation (Monitoria e Avaliação) creating conditions, such as annual check-ins, and using the Report on the Economic and Social Plan (Balanço do Plano Económico e Social) to ensure that each division maintains consistency in their actions.

O plano esboça a materialização do Plano Nacional para o Avanço da Mulher ao mapear os seus objetivos, finanças, e avaliações de progresso em prazos específicos. Ele foca em expandir os serviços disponíveis para as vítimas de violência doméstica, sexual, física, e psicológica; melhorando as instituições para educar o público sobre violência de gênero; implementando estratégias legais para prevenir e combater violência contra mulheres; e estabelecendo mecanismos multissetoriais para intervir em situações de violência em que as mulheres se encontrem. Por exemplo, como as mulheres são 57% das pessoas HIV-positivas em Moçambique, o plano fornece serviço de profilaxia para ISTs, incluindo HIV, para vítimas de violência sexual. Cada setor está responsável por administrar o seu próprio orçamento de acordo com os seus objetivos, mas é esperado que o governo Moçambicano e o Plano Econômico e Social sejam forças motrizes na atração de mais parceiros e recursos para o plano. O cronograma é de cinco anos, com a Monitoria e Avaliação criando condições, como check-ins anuais, e usando o Balanço do Plano Ecônomico e Social para garantir que cada divisão mantenha consistência em suas ações.



Labor Code Chapter 12: Employment and Social Vacations (1999)


Employment discrimination

Women are granted leave for reasons of pregnancy and childbirth for 126 calendar days (140 days if there are complications at birth). After the birth of the child, women are entitled to maternal leave for a period of up to three years in accordance with Arts. 184-185. During this time, women are paid a monthly allowance by the State.



Política Nacional para Igualdade e Equidade de Gênero (Decreto Presidencial Nº 222/13) (National Policy for Gender Equality and Equity) (2013)


Employment discrimination, Gender discrimination

The President approved the National Policy for Gender Equality and Equity in December 2013. The policy and strategic plan on gender equality between men and women promotes equal opportunities, rights, and responsibilities in all domains of their economic, political, and social lives. It further establishes state liability in the adoption and execution of policies and promotes sustainable development, along with other basic human rights principles, such as non-discrimination, gender equality, and respect of individuals. The National Policy also brings data regarding the population of women in the country, analyzing the social, political, and economic situation. Finally, the Policy maps out the main problems faced by women (related to basic services, such as education and health, as well as domestic violence, participation in politics, and access to resources) and defines strategies and targets to achieve the specific goals in order to reduce gender inequalities present in the country.

O Presidente aprovou a Política Nacional para Igualdade e Equidade de Gênero em Dezembro de 2013. A política e o plano estratégico para equidade de gênero entre homens e mulheres promove oportunidades, direitos, e responsabilidades iguais em todos os âmbitos das suas vidas econômicas, políticas, e sociais. Ela também estabelece a responsabilidade do estado na adoção e execução de políticas e promove desenvolvimento sustentável, junto de outros princípios de direitos humanos básicos, como a não discriminação, equidade de gênero, e respeito aos indivíduos. A Política Nacional também traz dados relativos à população feminina do país, analizando as situações sociais, políticas, e econômicas. Finalmente, a Política mapeia os principais problemas enfrentados por mulheres (relativos a serviços básicos, como educação e saúde, assim como violência doméstica, participação na política, e acesso a recursos) e define estratégias e objetivos a serem alcançados para atingir metas específicas a fim de reduzir desigualdades de gênero presentes no país.



Domestic Violence Act (2014)


Domestic and intimate partner violence, International law

The purpose of the Act is to provide protection for victims of domestic violence, to prevent and eliminate violence within domestic relationships, to ensure the safety of children who witness or experience domestic violence, and to enact provisions consistent with Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). The Act defines domestic violence in detail (See Part 1, Section 4.1.a-c) and allows victims of domestic violence to file for protection orders and allows a court to issue an emergency or ex parte protection order (See Part 2: Protection Orders). The Act also mandates government ministries to enact public awareness programs on violence within families, the collection of data regarding the incidences and frequency of domestic violence to support preventative measures, and training regarding human rights and the equality of women for public officials, health care professionals, and police officers. It also provides for the establishment of support facilities for victims of domestic and gender-based violence. (See Part 3: Prevention and Response). The Act also provides that police personnel while responding to a report of domestic violence sufficiently supported by evidence must undertake to do all things necessary for a court to commence the criminal prosecution of the matter. (See Part 4: Police Powers and Duties, Section 30.) Health care professionals who have provided assistance to victims of domestic violence must advise the victim about counseling and advise the victim to file a report with the police. (See Part 5: Role of Health Care Professionals and Social Service Providers.) Lastly, the Act prescribes that the crime of domestic violence is punishable by six months to three years imprisonment, as well as accompanying monetary fines. Certain circumstances such as repeat offenses, offenses against pregnant women or persons with special needs, domestic violence committed against or witnessed by a child, violence resulting in severe or life-threatening injury, or acts committed with a weapon constitute aggravations resulting in enhanced penalties to offenders. (See Section 6: Offences and Penalties.)



兒童及少年性剝削防制條例 Child and Youth Sexual Exploitation Prevention Act (2018)


Sexual violence and rape, Statutory rape or defilement, Trafficking in persons

Originally enacted in 1995 as the Child and Youth Sexual Transaction Prevention Act, this Act (the “CYSEPA”) was enacted to prevent all forms of sexual exploitation of children and youths and ensure their healthy physical and mental development. The CYSEPA specifies the responsibilities of the relevant authorities and governs the prevention of sexual exploitation of children and youths and the rescue, protection, and counseling of victims. Competent authorities must arrange the placement of the victim in a child and youth welfare institution, foster family, or other appropriate medical or educational institution on an emergency basis; evaluate the necessity of continuing placement within 72 hours; and to apply to the court for longer-term placements. The authorities must also offer counseling, intervention, and assistance with school enrollment, employment, independent living, or other necessary matters for a period of at least one year or until the victim’s 20th birthday. If the offender is the victim’s parent, foster parent, or guardian, the victim, the prosecutors, or other interested parties may apply to a court to stop such person from exercising parental rights over the victim and to appoint another guardian. After becoming aware of any victim or any suspect of a crime covered by the CYSEPA, medical personnel, social workers, educational personnel, caregivers, and personnel of other business or governmental organizations must report the crime to the authorities. Internet platform providers, online application service providers, and telecommunications companies are obligated to remove information relating to suspicious criminal activities, to notify law enforcement, and to provide data to law enforcement and judicial authorities for investigation. The competent authorities are also authorized to require the parents, guardian, or other caregiver of a victim to receive parental education and counseling for a period of up to 50 hours and to attend a family treatment program. Persons found guilty under the CYSEPA are subject to imprisonment as well as to fines up to N.T.10 million, with offenders who intentionally kill the victim subject to the death penalty or life imprisonment. English translation available here.



Izborni zakon (Election law) (2001)


Gender discrimination

The Election Law promotes women’s participation in political and public life by mandating that every candidates list shall include candidates of male and female gender. There must be at least 40% female candidates. English translation available from RefWorld here.



Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence (2013)


Domestic and intimate partner violence, Gender violence in conflict, Gender-based violence in general, International law

Ratified by BiH in November 2013, this Convention opens the path for creating a legal framework at the pan-European level to protect women against all forms of violence and to prevent, prosecute, and eliminate violence and domestic violence against women. The Convention also establishes the Group of Experts on Action against Violence against Women and Domestic Violence (GREVIO), which is responsible for monitoring the implementation of the Convention. Its members are elected by the state parties. The structure of the treaty is based on the “four Ps”: (1) prevention, (2) protection and support of victims, (3) prosecution of offenders, and (4) integrated policies. The Convention also establishes obligations in relation to the collection of data and supporting research in the field of violence against women. Article 2 of the Convention indicates that the provisions shall apply in time of peace and also in situations of armed conflicts. The treaty came into effect in Bosnia on the 1 August 2014.



National Education Act of B.E. 2545 (1999) (as amended by the National Education Act, B.E. 2545 (2002)) (2002)


Gender discrimination

The National Education Act provides for Thailand’s educational system’s structure. Under Section 10, all individuals shall have equal rights and opportunities to receive basic education provided by the State for the duration of at least 12 years. Such education, provided on a nationwide basis, shall be of quality and free of charge. This extends to those with physical, mental, emotional, and social deficiencies, and those unable to support themselves or who are otherwise destitute or disadvantaged, where such persons shall have the rights and opportunities to receive basic education specially provided. Original Thai laws available here.



พระราชบัญญัติ ความเท่าเทียมระหว่างเพศ พ.ศ.๒๕๕๘ (Gender Equality Act 2015) (2015)


Gender discrimination

The “Equality Act” broadly prohibits almost all forms of gender discrimination. It establishes two groups, the Committee for the Promotion of Gender Equality (the “PGE Committee”) and the Committee on the Determination of the Unfair Gender Discrimination (the “UGD Committee”). The PGE Committee’s powers and duties broadly include prescribing and recommending policy on promoting gender quality, prescribing guidelines for providing assistance and remedy to victims of gender inequality, overseeing the performance of duties under the Equality Act, and promoting study and research into the prevention of gender discrimination. The UGD Committee’s powers and duties include considering problems submitted by petition claiming unfair gender discrimination, prescribing provisional measures before rendering decisions for protection or mitigation, and issuing orders to perform duties or provide compensation. Any person or organization found guilty of an offense shall be ordered to cease and prevent recurrence of unfair gender discrimination. Whoever fails to comply with such an order shall be liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding six months or to a fine not exceeding 20,000 Baht. Under section 17(2) of the Equality Act gender discrimination is permitted on the basis of religious principles or national security. English translation available through External Link.



Commission on Gender Equality Amendment (Act 17 of 2013) (2013)


Gender discrimination

This Act amends the Commission on Gender Equality Act of 1996 to align with the Constitution. The Preamble in the Act substitutes the Preamble of the 1996 Act, and holds that §181 and item 20(2) of Schedule 6 to the Constitution provides for the continued existence of the Commission for Gender Equality ("the Commission"). Furthermore, it outlines the purpose of the Commission, which is to promote respect for gender equality and the protection, development, and attainment of gender equality. Among the Commission’s powers outlined in the Act is its power to monitor, investigate, research, educate, lobby, advise, and report on issues concerning gender equality. All its powers and functions are to be prescribed by national legislation.



Ley 20.609 (Anti-Discrimination Law) (2012)


Gender discrimination, International law, LGBTIQ

The main objective of this law is to establish a judicial mechanism that allows for an effective reestablishment of the rule of law whenever an act of arbitrary discrimination is committed. Pursuant to this law, arbitrary discrimination means any distinction, exclusion, or restriction that lacks reasonable justification, made by agents of the State or individuals, and that causes deprivation, disturbance or threat in the legitimate exercise of the fundamental rights established in the Political Constitution of the Republic or in the international treaties on human rights ratified by Chile and that are in force, in particular when based on race or ethnicity, nationality, socio-economic situation, language, ideology or political opinion, religion or belief, unionization or participation in trade union organizations or the lack thereof, sex, sexual orientation, gender identity, marital status, age, affiliation, personal appearance, and illness or disability.



Domestic Violence Act (2007)


Domestic and intimate partner violence, Sexual harassment, Sexual violence and rape, Statutory rape or defilement

The Domestic Violence Act (the “DVA”) defines and prohibits domestic violence. Here, domestic violence means any act under the Criminal Code 1960 (Act 29) that constitutes a threat or harm to a person within the context of a domestic relationship. This includes specific acts, threats to commit, or acts likely to result in physical, sexual, or economic abuse. Emotional, verbal, or psychological abuse, including harassment, also fall within the definition of domestic violence. After a complaint has been brought, the police have a duty to provide assistance and protection to the victim of domestic violence even though the victim did not file the complaint. Thus, the police will interview the parties and witnesses, record the complaint, help the victim to obtain medical treatment and inform the victim of his or her rights. The victim can then seek a protection order in the court with original jurisdiction.



Constitution of the Republic of Ghana (Amendment Act 1996) (1996)


Divorce and dissolution of marriage, Employment discrimination, Gender discrimination, Harmful traditional practices, Property and inheritance rights

Article 15 of the Constitution of the Republic of Ghana relates to respect for human dignity and prohibits torture or cruel and inhuman punishment. Article 16 prohibits involuntary servitude or slavery. Article 17 relates to equality and non-discrimination and establishes that every person in Ghana is equal before the law. To this end, Article 17 specifically prohibits discrimination on the grounds of gender, race, color, ethnic origin, religion, creed, or social or economic status. Article 18 pertains to property rights and states that every person has the right to own property either alone or in association with others. Article 22 builds upon Article 18 and establishes that a spouse shall not be deprived of a reasonable provision out of the estate of a spouse whether or not the spouse died with a will. Article 22 states that Parliament shall enact legislation regulating the property rights of spouses as soon as possible after the Constitution came in to force. Article 22 clarifies that spouses shall have equal access to property jointly acquired during marriage and that assets that are jointly acquired during marriage shall be distributed equitably between the spouses upon dissolution of the marriage. Article 24 of the Ghanaian Constitution concerns economic rights and establishes pay parity as a constitutionally enshrined principle. It states that every person has the right to work under satisfactory, safe, and healthy conditions and shall receive equal pay for equal work without distinction of any kind. Article 26 concerns cultural rights and practices and states that (a) every person is entitled to enjoy, practise, profess, maintain, and promote any culture, language, tradition, or religion subject to the provisions of the Constitution; but also that (b) all customary practices that dehumanise or injure the physical and mental well-being of a person are prohibited. Article 27 refers specifically to women’s rights. It states that special care shall be accorded to mothers during a reasonable period before and after childbirth; and during these periods, working mothers shall be entitled to paid leave; that facilities shall be provided for the care of children below school-going age to enable women, who traditionally care for children, to realise their full potential; and that women shall be guaranteed equal rights to training and promotion without impediments. Article 36(6) refers specifically to the economic obligations of the state, which include ensuring that the State afford equality of economic opportunity to all citizens. Article 36(6) emphasizes that the State must take all necessary steps to ensure the full integration of women as equal partners in Ghana’s economic development.



Zakon o Sprečavanju Nasilja u Porodici (Law on the Prevention of Family Violence) (2016)


Domestic and intimate partner violence, Sexual violence and rape

The LPDV has a broad definition of domestic violence which includes violence between both cohabiting and non-cohabiting partners. The LPDV is gender-neutral in approach. Police powers include the ability to issue restraining orders and temporary or emergency eviction notices that can be extended by up to 30 days. Violations of such orders carry penalties of up to 60 days in prison. The LPDV also imposes a new duty on the public prosecutor’s office to maintain a central register of domestic violence cases. Victims of domestic violence also have the right to free legal aid.



Kodi Penal i Republikës së Shqipërisë (Penal Code of Albania) (2017)


Sexual violence and rape, Trafficking in persons

The amended law aims to harmonize its provisions with the highest international standards. The amendments include a new provision (Article 58 (The Rights of the Victim of the Criminal Offence)), which provides a number of guaranteed rights for victims of gender-based violence in criminal proceedings in accordance with international standards. Article 58 Paragraph 1 includes, among others, the right of access by the victim to various support services (such as psychological assistance, counseling etc.), the right to use his/her own language during the proceedings and the right to be informed at all stages of the proceedings about the arrest and release of the offender and the victim’s right to compensation. Article 58 Paragraph 2 requires the public authority in charge of the criminal procedures to immediately notify the victim of the rights in Paragraph 1 and keep records of such notification. Article 58(b) includes amendments to provisions related to victims of sexual violence and human trafficking. This includes the right to be interviewed by a police officer or prosecutor of the same gender, the right to refuse to respond to questions about his/her private life that are not related to the case, and the right to testify through audio-visual technology. (Unofficial English translation available here.)



Constitution of the Republic of Uganda (1995)


Divorce and dissolution of marriage, Domestic and intimate partner violence, Forced and early marriage, Gender discrimination, Harmful traditional practices, Property and inheritance rights

Article 21 of the Constitution of Republic of Uganda prohibits gender discrimination generally and enshrines the principle of equality before the law, regardless of sex, race, color, ethnicity, tribe, religion, political belief, or social or economic standing. Article 31 sets the minimum age for marriage at 18 and provides for equal rights between men and women during marriage and divorce. Article 33 pertains specifically to the rights of women and requires that (1) the government must provide opportunities to enhance the welfare of women and enable them to reach their full potential, (2) women have rights equal to men in areas including political, economic, and social activities, and (3) laws, customs, traditions, and cultures that are "against the dignity of women" are prohibited by the Constitution. Article 22 enshrines protection for the right to life and allows for abortion in accordance with the law.



Domestic Violence Act (2008)


Domestic and intimate partner violence

The Domestic Violence Act (No. 10 of 2008) seeks to provide survivors of domestic violence with protection. The Act defines domestic violence as "any controlling or abusive behaviour that harms the health or safety of the applicant." The Act empowers Courts including Customary Courts to pass an order (Section 7 of the Act prescribes orders available to applicants such as restraining orders and interim orders) that seeks to immediately protect applicants (victims); Section 9 (2) (b) (i) provides that the order shall direct a member of the Botswana Police to prohibit the respondent (the offender) from committing an act of domestic violence. The Act also outlines the jurisdiction of the courts, describes how an applicant can file an application for an order by the court, details how documents are served to respondents, and explains the nature of proceedings in a domestic violence case.



Política de Género e Estratégia da sua Implementação (Gender Policy and its Implementation) (2006)


Gender discrimination

Outlines a general plan for the creation of institutional mechanisms that will assist in the implementation of policies targeting gender inequality. Critical areas identified include economic empowerment, education, basic needs, and childbirth mortality.



Lei de Prevenção e Combate ao Tráfico de Pessoas: Lei nº 6/2008 (Law to Prevent Trafficking and Combat in Persons) (2008)


Trafficking in persons

The law defines and prohibits human trafficking. The penalty for human trafficking is 16 - 20 years imprisonment. Longer prison sentences are recommended when the victim is a woman or a child. The law provides that victims can benefit from witness protection measures and other forms of assistance, such as medical services and counseling.



中华人民共和国妇女权益保障法 (Law on the Protection of Women's Rights and Interests) (2005)


Abortion and reproductive health rights, Domestic and intimate partner violence, Gender discrimination, Property and inheritance rights

The Law on the Protection of Women’s Rights and Interests was adopted by the National People’s Congress on April 3, 1999 and amended on August 28, 2005. This Law stipulates that women have equal rights with men “in all aspects of political, economic, cultural, social and family life.” It also establishes the State’s responsibility to prevent domestic violence. Article 1 provides that “this Law is formulated to protect women’s lawful rights and interests, promote equality between men and women and allow full pay to women’s role in socialist modernization.” Article 7 provides that “[t]he All-China Women’s Federation and women’s federations at various levels shall, in accordance with the laws and charter of the All-China Women’s Federation,” uphold women’s rights and protect the rights and interests of women. Article 12 provides that the State shall “actively train and select female cadres” and “pay attention to the training and selection of female cadres of minority nationalities.” Article 23 provides that “[w]ith the exception of the special types of work or post unsuitable to women, no unit may, in employing staff and workers, refuse to employ women because of sex or raise the employment standards for women.” Article 23 also provides that “[t]he labor (employment) contract or service agreement shall not contain restrictions on her matrimony and child-bearing.” Articles 24 and 25 stipulate equal pay and equal opportunity for promotion for men and women. Article 26 provides that all units shall “protect women’s safety and health during their work or physical labor, and shall not assign them any work or physical labor not suitable to women,” and that “[w]omen shall be under special protection during menstrual period, pregnancy, obstetrical period and nursing period.” Article 27 provides that “[n]o entity may, for the reason of matrimony, pregnancy, maternity leave or breast-feeding, decrease a female employee’s wage, dismiss her or unilaterally terminate the labor (employment) contract or service agreement.” Article 45 prohibits husbands from applying for a divorce “within one year after childbearing or within 6 months after termination of pregnancy” of a woman. Article 46 prohibits domestic violence. Article 51 provides that “[w]omen have the right to child-bearing in accordance with relevant regulations of the state as well as the freedom not to bear any child.”

堕胎与生育权、家庭暴力、性别歧视、财产与继承权

1992年4月3日,全国人民代表大会通过了中华人民共和国妇女权益保障法并于2005年8月28日对此法进行了修正。本法规定妇女在政治的、经济的、文化的、社会的和家庭的生活等各方面享有同男子平等的权利。本法规定了国家预防和制止家庭暴力的责任。第一条阐述了“为了保障妇女的合法权益,促进男女平等, 充分发挥妇女在社会主义现代化建设中的作用,根据宪法和我国的实际情况,制定本法。”第七条规定,中华全国妇女联合会和地方各级妇女联合会依照法律和中华全国妇女联合会章程,代表和维护各族各界妇女的利益,应做好维护妇女权益的工作。第十二条规定, 国家积极培养和选拔女干部,并有适当数量的妇女担任领导成员, 国家重视培养和选拔少数民族女干部。第二十三条规定,各单位在录用职工时,除不适合妇女的工种或者岗位外,不得以性别为由拒绝录用妇女或者提高 对妇女的录用标准。第十三条还规定,劳动(聘用)合同或者服务协议中不得规定限制女职工结婚、生育的内容。第二十三和二十四条规定了男女同工同酬和晋升、晋级等方面男女平等。第二十六条规定,任何单位均应根据妇女的特点,依法保护妇女在工作和劳动时的安全和健康,不得安排不适合妇女从事的工作和劳动,妇女在经期、孕期、产期、哺乳期受特殊保护。第二十七条规定任何单位不得因结婚、怀孕、产假、哺 乳等情形,降低女职工的工资,辞退女职工,单方解除劳动(聘用)合同或者服务协议。第四十五条规定女方在怀孕期间、分娩后一年内或者终止妊娠后六个月内,男方不得提出离婚。第四十六条禁止家庭暴力。第五十一条规定 妇女有按照国家有关规定生育子女的权利,也有不生育的自由。



Constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia


Divorce and dissolution of marriage, Employment discrimination, Gender discrimination, Gender-based violence in general, Harmful traditional practices, International law

Article 9 of the FDRE Constitution provides that all international treaties ratified by Ethiopia are integral parts of the law of the land. Similarly, Article 13.2 provides that fundamental rights and freedoms shall be interpreted in a manner conforming to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, International Covenants on Human Rights and International instruments adopted by Ethiopia. Ethiopia has ratified many of these treaties including ICCPR, ICESCR, and CEDAW. Article 35 of the FDRE Constitution pertains to the Rights of Women. The article provides for equal rights under the constitution, equal rights with men in marriage, entitlement to affirmative measures, protection from harmful traditional practices, the right to maternity pay, the right to consultation, property rights (including acquiring and controlling and transferring property), employment rights, and access to family planning education. It is worth noting that this article explicitly imposes an obligation and accountability on the state to protect women from violence at Article 35.4: “The State shall enforce the right of women to eliminate the influences of harmful customs. Laws, customs and practices that oppress or cause bodily or mental harm to women are prohibited.”



Domestic Violence (Amendment) Act 2017 (2017)


Domestic and intimate partner violence, Property and inheritance rights, Sexual harassment, Stalking

An interim protection order (IPO) protects survivors during police investigation, while a protection order (PO) protects survivors during criminal court proceedings. The amendments specify when an IPO ends, and when a PO begins, so survivors won’t be left without protection between police investigations and court proceeding. Pursuant to the amendments, an IPO can include additional safeguards, like prohibiting an abuser from coming near a survivor so police can intervene before further violence happens. The expanded definition of domestic violence will protect against: misappropriating property, which causes distress; threatening, which causes distress or fear for safety; or communicating (including electronically) with the survivor to insult modesty. A court can no longer order a survivor to attend reconciliatory counseling with the abuser, which could put the survivor in danger. Instead, the abuser can be ordered to complete a rehabilitation program. If a court grants a survivor occupancy of a shared residence, it must grant the survivor exclusive occupancy rather than just a specified part of the residence. The police officer must keep survivors informed on the status of investigation, status of IPO and PO, and important court dates. The amendments also create the Emergency Protection Order (EPO), which helps survivors get protection faster. EPOs are issued by social welfare officers who are easily accessible. Survivors no longer have to make a police report to get an EPO, which is valid for seven days.



Domestic Case Law

R. v. Mponda (Child Criminal Review Case No. 8 of 2017) High Court of Malawi (2017)


Statutory rape or defilement, Trafficking in persons

Three minor girls, victims of human trafficking who the defendant lured in with promises of working in a restaurant, but instead sent to work at a bar, appealed their case. When the work conditions turned out to be exploitative, the appellants reported the defendant to the police. The case was appealed to the High Court on the basis that: (i) the case file did not go through the standard process whereby a case is registered in the Criminal Registry then distributed to a Magistrate by a Chief Resident Magistrate, and (ii) the magistrate did not follow proper procedure for the child witnesses’ testimony. In concluding that a proper lower court be assigned to re-hear the matter, the High Court underscored the importance of following legal procedure designed to protect the rights of vulnerable child witnesses. The High Court pointed out a number of procedural protocols, such as ensuring that the child witnesses did not come into direct contact with the accused, making provision for the witness to be accompanied by a supportive figure in court, and considering the possibility of a pre-recorded interview of a child witness as evidence. The court noted that a court competent in handling child witnesses must re-hear the matter, as causing witnesses to endure repeat trials as a result of the failure to follow proper judicial procedure is akin to repeat victimization of such witnesses.



Decisión 609 de marzo 6, 2010 Corte Suprema de Justicia de la República de Paraguay (2010)


Gender discrimination

This decision approved the creation of the specialized office referred to as ‘Secretaría Judicial de Género,’ depending upon the Supreme Court of Justice. Since discrimination can sometimes prevent women from accessing justice, the decision adopted measures designed to facilitate access to justice for women. The measures protect women’s rights and legitimate interests with the goal of achieving effective equality. The Court stated that the effective administration of justice requires the creation of such office, as a specialized, highly technical, and competent institutional mechanism with adequate resources to promote a gendered approach on matters of equality and non-discrimination.

Esta decisión aprobó la creación de la oficina especializada denominada “Secretaría Judicial de Género”, dependiente de la Corte Suprema de Justicia. Dado que la discriminación a veces puede impedir que las mujeres accedan a la justicia, la decisión adoptó medidas diseñadas para facilitar el acceso a la justicia de las mujeres. Las medidas protegen los derechos e intereses legítimos de las mujeres con el objetivo de lograr la igualdad efectiva. La Corte señaló que la efectiva administración de justicia requiere la creación de dicha oficina, como un mecanismo institucional especializado, altamente técnico, competente y con recursos adecuados para promover el enfoque de género en materia de igualdad y no discriminación.



Decisión 657 de noviembre 9, 2010 Corte Suprema de Justicia de la República de Paraguay (2010)


Gender discrimination, International law

This decision established the guidelines for the institutional policy on gender for the Paraguayan Judicial Branch. The Supreme Court agreed on: i) ensuring that users of judicial services receive communications (with an emphasis on gender) in a timely manner that are both easily accessible and understandable; ii) providing information on gender and gender rights; raising awareness on the importance of reporting events that violate individuals’ rights and dignity; iii) publicizing case law that studies gender issues; iv) digitizing the rulings (with a focus on gender issues) issued by different courts; complying with international standards; creating a framework for decision-making that incorporates a gender approach; v) hiring trained personnel to handle gender-related claims.

Esta decisión estableció los lineamientos de la política institucional de género del Poder Judicial de Paraguay. La Corte Suprema acordó: i) asegurar que los usuarios de los servicios judiciales reciban comunicaciones (con énfasis en género) en tiempo y forma que sean de fácil acceso y comprensión; ii) brindar información sobre género y derechos de género; sensibilizar sobre la importancia de denunciar hechos que vulneran los derechos y la dignidad de las personas; iii) difundir jurisprudencia que estudie temas de género; iv) digitalizar las sentencias (con enfoque de género) emitidas por diferentes tribunales; cumplir con los estándares internacionales; crear un marco para la toma de decisiones que incorpore un enfoque de género; v) contratación de personal capacitado para atender reclamos relacionados con el género.



Decisión 662 de diciembre 14, 2010 Corte Suprema de Justicia de la República de Paraguay (2010)


Domestic and intimate partner violence

This decision provides that complaints of domestic violence must be channeled through the ‘Permanent Attention Office’ (Oficina de Atención Permanente). This Office is responsible of receiving all types of domestic or intra-family violence claims, without making any distinction based on the sex or age of the victims. Since violence against women constitutes a violation of human rights, the creation of the Office is intended to streamline judicial proceedings, serving victims of physical or mental abuse in a timely and efficient manner.

Esta decisión establece que las denuncias de violencia intrafamiliar deben canalizarse a través de la Oficina de Atención Permanente. Esta Oficina es la encargada de recibir todo tipo de denuncias por violencia doméstica o intrafamiliar, sin distinción alguna en razón de sexo o edad de las víctimas. Dado que la violencia contra la mujer constituye una violación de los derechos humanos, la creación de la Oficina tiene por objeto agilizar los procesos judiciales, atendiendo a las víctimas de maltrato físico o psíquico de manera oportuna y eficiente.



Decisión 845 de octubre 1, 2013 Corte Suprema de Justicia de la República de Paraguay (2013)


Custodial violence, Gender discrimination, International law

This decision resolved to implement the content of the ‘United Nations Rules for the Treatment of Women Prisoners and Non-Custodial Measures for Women Offenders,’ known as the ‘Bangkok Rules.’ The incorporation of such rules seeks for the creation of public policies aimed to eliminate discrimination against convicted women, establish legal protection of women’s rights in courts, and promote equality between women and men before the Justice Administration System. The decision also provided for a multidisciplinary commission composed of the Secretariat for Gender, the Directorate of Human Rights, the Directorate of International Affairs and the Penitentiary Monitoring Unit. Such commission is responsible of promoting the Bangkok Rules and raising awareness of all components of the Judiciary branch.

Esta decisión resolvió implementar el contenido de las 'Reglas de las Naciones Unidas para el Tratamiento de Reclusas y Medidas no Privativas de la Libertad para Mujeres Delincuentes', conocidas como 'Reglas de Bangkok'. La incorporación de dichas reglas busca la creación de políticas públicas dirigidas eliminar la discriminación contra las mujeres condenadas, establecer la protección legal de los derechos de las mujeres en las cortes y promover la igualdad entre mujeres y hombres ante el Sistema de Administración de Justicia. La decisión también dispuso una comisión multidisciplinaria integrada por la Secretaría de Género, la Dirección de Derechos Humanos, la Dirección de Asuntos Internacionales y la Unidad de Seguimiento Penitenciario. Dicha comisión es responsable de promover las Reglas de Bangkok y sensibilizar a todos los componentes del Poder Judicial.



Decisión 1247 de junio 5, 2018 Corte Suprema de Justicia de la República de Paraguay (2018)


Domestic and intimate partner violence, Gender-based violence in general

This decision promoted the systematization of complaints relating to domestic and intra-family violence. It updated the ‘Violence Registration Form’ approved by Decision nº 454 dated April 24, 2007. The form promotes a system of centralized information and, consequently, accurate statistical indicators that will help authorities to better understand and prevent violence against women. This decision also promotes a new management model for all cases and complaints relating to domestic, intra-family violence and violence against women, filed in the ‘peace courts’ (juzgados de paz) throughout the country.

Esta decisión impulsó la sistematización de las denuncias relacionadas con violencia doméstica e intrafamiliar. Actualizó el “Formulario de Registro de Violencia” aprobado en la Decisión nº 454 del 24 de abril de 2007. El formulario promueve un sistema de información centralizada y, en consecuencia, indicadores estadísticos precisos que ayudarán a las autoridades a comprender mejor y prevenir la violencia contra las mujeres. Esta decisión también promueve un nuevo modelo de gestión para todos los casos y denuncias relacionadas con la violencia doméstica, intrafamiliar y contra la mujer, que se presenten en los juzgados de paz de todo el país.



Control de constitucionalidad previo, Proyecto de ley Nª 62/98 Senado y 158/98 Cámara de Representantes (Sentencia C-371-00, Expediente: P.E.010) Corte Constitucional de la República de Colombia (2000)


Employment discrimination

This case concerned women’s equality in public-sector employment. The court ruled in favor of gender quotas for positions of public power. The plenary of the court reviewed a statutory project regulating the effective participation of women in public institutions by the establishment of gender quotas. A minimum of 30% of the top decision-making positions, among other senior positions in public Colombian institutions, shall be held by women. Sanctions were established for those appointing authorities that would not comply with the rule. Sanctions consisted of a 30-day period suspension and, if non-compliance persisted, destitution from public charges. It was argued that the aim of the project was to ensure genuine and effective equality of opportunities, which was considered a legitimate constitutional end. Nevertheless, the court held that some of the proposed provisions did not comply with the Constitution. For instance, some of the regulated sanctions were considered to be disproportionate. Thus, the court endorsed the Congress to issue the legislation excluding the provisions that were unconstitutional.

Este caso se refería a la igualdad laboral de la mujer en el sector público. La Corte Constitucional consideró constitucional el establecimiento de cuotas de género para los cargos del poder público. La plenaria de la Corte revisó un proyecto de ley que regulaba la participación efectiva de las mujeres en las instituciones públicas mediante el establecimiento de cuotas de género. Al menos el 30% de los cargos directivos y otros altos cargos de las instituciones públicas colombianas, deberán ser ocupados por mujeres. Se establecieron sanciones para aquellas autoridades que no cumplieran con la norma. Las sanciones consistían en la suspensión por un período de 30 días y, de persistir el incumplimiento, la destitución de los cargos públicos. Se argumentó que el objeto del proyecto era garantizar una igualdad de oportunidades real y efectiva, lo que se consideraba un fin constitucional legítimo. Sin embargo, la Corte argumentó que algunas de las disposiciones propuestas no estaban alineadas con la Constitución, por ejemplo, algunas de las sanciones reguladas se consideraron desproporcionadas. De esta manera, el tribunal avaló al Congreso para dictar la legislación excluyendo las disposiciones que fueran inconstitucionales.



Demanda de Constitucionalidad, Paz Mahecha vs. artículo 229 de la Ley 599/2000 (Código Penal) modificado por el artículo 33 de la Ley 1142/2007 Corte Constitucional de la República de Colombia (2014)


Domestic and intimate partner violence

This judicial review concerned domestic violence. The court ruled that there ought to be greater criminal sanctions for domestic violence offenses. The law provides for four to eight years of imprisonment in cases of domestic violence, irrespective of the magnitude of the injuries. The plaintiff claimed that the article went against the proportionality principle set forth by the Colombian Constitution. The Constitutional Court held that special protection should be provided to families and especially to those who are more vulnerable to domestic violence and are in need of enhanced protective measures. The court pointed out that the family unit shall be preserved, among others, by virtue of the State’s powers and sanctions in accordance with article 42 of the Constitution. That is to say, the Colombian State is obliged to enact and establish a number of strict legal provisions allowing for the investigation and adequate punishment of any sort of domestic violence. To that end, the legislature had the power to discourage the forms of violence that may affect the family unit by increasing sanctions for domestic violence offenses, as provided in article 229 of the Criminal Code –and amended by article 33 of Law 1142 of 2007.

Esta demanda de constitucionalidad se refería a la violencia doméstica. La Corte Constitucional dictaminó que debería haber mayores sanciones penales para los delitos de violencia doméstica. La ley prevé de cuatro a ocho años de prisión para casos de violencia intrafamiliar, independientemente de la magnitud de las lesiones. La demandante alegó que el artículo contravenía el principio de proporcionalidad consagrado en la Constitución Política de Colombia. La Corte Constitucional sostuvo que se debe brindar protección especial a las familias y especialmente a aquellas que son más vulnerables a la violencia doméstica y necesitan mayores medidas de protección. El tribunal señaló que la unidad familiar se debe preservar, entre otras, a través de las facultades del Estado y de regímenes sancionatorios de conformidad con el artículo 42 de la Constitución. Es decir, el Estado colombiano está obligado a promulgar y establecer una serie de estrictas disposiciones legales que permitan investigar y sancionar adecuadamente cualquier tipo de violencia intrafamiliar. Para tal efecto, el legislador tenía la facultad de desalentar cualquier forma de violencia que pueda afectar la unidad familiar mediante el aumento de las sanciones por delitos de violencia intrafamiliar, según lo dispuesto en el artículo 229 del Código Penal –y reformado por el artículo 33 de la Ley 1142 de 2007.



Comisión Colombiana de Juristas (CCJ) en representación de persona protegida vs Cámara Penal de la Corte de Cundinamarca (Sentencia T-126-18 - Acción de Tutela; Expediente T- 6.326.145) Corte Constitucional de la República de Colombia (2018)


Gender-based violence in general, Sexual violence and rape

The case concerned issues of language in judicial rulings that led to revictimization. The protected applicant, the leader of an association of peasant women, was kidnapped and raped by an illegal armed group that considered her a threat. The plaintiff brought suit against two potential perpetrators who were acquitted by the court of Cundinamarca. The Constitutional Court ruled to exclude a section of the aforementioned decision because of the section’s use of vulgar and disqualifying expressions in relation to the victim of sexual violence. The court argued that judges must, in their decisions: (a) avoid value judgments that refer to the personality or physical appearance of an alleged victim of sexual violence; (b) quote literally the testimonies and sections that refer to the analyzed criminal behavior, and; (c) make the descriptions of the provided evidence with an objective and respectful tone.

El caso se refería al uso del lenguaje en sentencias judiciales que conducen a la re-victimización. La persona protegida, líder de una asociación de mujeres campesinas, fue secuestrada y violada por un grupo armado ilegal que la consideraba una amenaza. La víctima denunció a dos posibles perpetradores del crimen, pero fueron absueltos por la Corte de Cundinamarca. La Corte Constitucional resolvió excluir una sección de la sentencia proferida por la Corte de Cundinamarca por el uso de expresiones vulgares e insultantes contra la víctima de violencia sexual. La Corte Constitucional argumentó que los jueces deben, en sus decisiones: (a) evitar hacer juicios de valor que se refieran a la personalidad o apariencia física de una presunta víctima de violencia sexual; (b) citar literalmente los testimonios y apartados que se refieran a la conducta delictiva analizada, y; (c) hacer las descripciones de las pruebas aportadas con un tono objetivo y respetuoso.



Persona Protegida vs Juzgado Primero Promiscuo de Familia de Filadelfia e Instituto Colombiano de Bienestar Familiar (Sentencia T-468-18 - Acción de Tutela; Expediente T-6.607.437) Corte Constitucional de la República de Colombia (2018)


Gender discrimination

The case concerned the capacity and dignity of mothers with disabilities. The court ultimately reinstated the mother’s custody of her child, who was given for adoption by the state as a result of the mother’s disability in violation of her rights. The court’s decision served two purposes: (i) to protect the best interests of the child, guarantee their right to have a family, and not be separated from it; and (ii) compliance with all of the state’s obligations towards persons with disabilities and their right to form a family with dignity. The court ordered the Ombudsman’s Office to compose a committee consisting of a doctor, psychologist, and a social worker in order to follow-up with the mother and identify the obstacles and specific problems that she may have in the exercise of her responsibilities when raising her child.

El caso se refería al derecho de la dignidad humana de las madres con discapacidad. La Corte decidió restablecer la custodia de la madre sobre su hijo. El tribunal encontró que existió una violación de los derechos de una madre en situación de discapacidad cuyo hijo fue dado en adopción por el Estado como resultado de la discapacidad de la madre. La decisión de la Corte atendió a dos propósitos: (i) proteger el interés superior del niño y garantizar su derecho a tener una familia y a no ser separado de ella; y (ii) el cumplimiento de todas las obligaciones del Estado hacia las personas con discapacidad y el derecho de las personas en situación de discapacidad a formar una familia en condiciones dignas. Adicionalmente, la Corte ordenó a la Defensoría del Pueblo conformar un comité integrado por un médico, un psicólogo y una trabajadora social con el fin de hacer seguimiento a la madre e identificar los obstáculos y problemas específicos que pueda tener en el ejercicio de sus responsabilidades al criar a su hijo.



Esperanza y otros vs el Ministerio de Defensa (Sentencia T-594-16 -Acción de Tutela-; Expediente T-5.596.207) Corte Constitucional de la República de Colombia (2016)


Employment discrimination, Gender discrimination

This case concerned issues of personal freedom and the discrimination against sex workers. The ruling resulted in the protection of two sex workers’ fundamental rights: to be treated equally and not be discriminated because of their profession. The events that triggered such protection concerned a police raid against sex workers in Bogotá under the excuse of regaining a public space. At that time, the Government was working on the implementation of a special protection program, including special training for police, to promote the importance of the dignified treatment of sex workers and the prohibition of verbal and physical abuse. The decision ultimately further reinforced constitutional protections for sex workers’ rights to freedom, work, free movement, and non-discrimination.

Este caso se refería a cuestiones de libertad personal y discriminación contra las trabajadoras sexuales. El fallo otorgó la protección de los derechos fundamentales de dos trabajadoras sexuales a ser tratadas por igual y a no ser discriminadas por su profesión. Los hechos que desencadenaron tal protección se referían a un allanamiento policial en contra de trabajadoras sexuales en Bogotá bajo el pretexto de la recuperación del espacio público. En ese momento, el Gobierno estaba trabajando en la implementación de un programa de protección especial, incluida la capacitación especial para policías para promover la importancia del trato digno de las trabajadoras sexuales y la prohibición del abuso verbal y físico contra ellas. La decisión finalmente reforzó aún más que los derechos de las trabajadoras sexuales a la libertad, el trabajo, la libre circulación y la no discriminación están protegidos constitucionalmente.



KI 155/17 Gjykata Kushtetuese (Constitutional Court) (2017)


Employment discrimination, Gender discrimination

The applicant was a judge on the Court of Appeals and was a candidate in the election for the President of the Court of Appeals. She received the highest number of points among the three candidates in the candidate evaluation commissioned by the Kosovo Judicial Council (KJC, the body which administers the judiciary). During the voting by the KJC, the applicant was voted on first, but did not receive the necessary majority of votes. The voting then moved on to the second-ranked candidate, who won the overwhelming share of votes and was elected. Upon losing, the applicant submitted a referral to the Constitutional Court, alleging various constitutional violations, including violation of the principle of gender equality under Article 24 (Equality before the Law) of the Constitution of Kosovo. The KJC responded that the principle of gender equality consisted of equal treatment of every candidate using the same standards, and that it had done so irrespective of the candidates’ gender or ethnic background. The Constitutional Court noted that Article 24 of the Constitution implies that general principles of equality of treatment apply to all actions of public authorities in their dealings with individuals. The tribunal explained that in a voting process, a fundamental aspect of the principle of equality is that each candidate shall benefit from the opportunity to be considered fairly and equally. The panel then held that the KJC’s vote did not provide equal opportunities to the candidates, because it did not provide for procedural safeguards pertinent to the guarantee of equality of treatment. Each candidate was voted on in succession, and so KJC members could vote in favor or against all three candidates. Members could also abstain from the voting selectively and arbitrarily. Thus, it was impossible to know which candidate actually had the support of the majority of the KJC. The court therefore declared the vote incompatible with the Constitution, and ordered the KJC to conduct a new vote. (Also available in Srpski and English.)



KI 41/12 Gjykata Kushtetuese (Constitutional Court) (2013)


Divorce and dissolution of marriage, Domestic and intimate partner violence, Femicide, International law

The deceased victim D.K. met her partner A.J. in secondary school, formed a union with him, and gave birth to a daughter. D.K. subsequently filed a claim to dissolve the union and for child custody at the Municipal Court because of a deterioration in her relationship with A.J. She also took their daughter to live with her parents. Following continuous threats by A.J., D.K. submitted a request to the Municipal Court for an emergency protection order under the Law on Protection from Domestic Violence. The court did not act within the statutorily mandated 24 hours of the request, and A.J. shot and killed D.K. several weeks later. The Kosovo Judicial Council (“KLJ”, the body which administers the judiciary) disciplinary committee issued a decision to discipline the responsible Municipal Court judge in response to a request by the Office of the Disciplinary Counsel, but D.K.’s parents were not party to the disciplinary proceedings. D.K.’s parents submitted a referral to the Constitutional Court, alleging the Municipal Court by its inaction violated D.K.’s rights under the Constitution of Kosovo, including Article 25 (Right to Life), Article 32 (Right to Legal Remedies), and Article 54 (Judicial Protection of Rights), as well as under the European Convention on Human Rights (“ECHR”), including Article 2 (Right to Life) and Article 13 (Right to Effective Remedy). The Constitutional Court observed that ECHR caselaw stresses that it is the duty of state authorities to take appropriate steps to safeguard the lives of those within its jurisdiction. This includes a positive obligation on the authorities to take preventive measures to (i) protect one whose life is at risk from another, (ii) where the authorities knew or ought to have known of the existence of a real and immediate risk to the life of an identified individual from a criminal offense, but (iii) failed to take measures which reasonably might have been expected to avoid the risk. The court found the Municipal Court ought to have known about the real risk in existence when D.K. requested the emergency protection order since she had explained the deterioration of her relationship with A.J., specifically his death threats and her reports to the police. Furthermore, the Municipal Court was handling D.K.’s case for the dissolution of union and child custody. Accordingly, the tribunal concluded that the Municipal Court was responsible for acting under the Law on Protection from Domestic Violence and that its inaction was a violation of Article 25 of the Constitution and Article 2 of the ECHR. The court also found that the Law on Protection from Domestic Violence and the statute governing the judiciary do not offer effective legal remedies for the protection of the applicants’ rights, because the former does not contain measures for addressing court inaction, and the latter does not allow the applicants to participate in any disciplinary investigation or procedure. Thus, the inaction of the Municipal Court and the KJC’s practice of not addressing judicial inaction violated the deceased’s and applicants’ right under Articles 32 and 54 of the Constitution and Article 13 of the ECHR. (Also available in Srpski and English.)



KI 108/18 Gjykata Kushtetuese (Constitutional Court) (2018)


International law, LGBTIQ

The applicant was registered as female at birth, but has always identified himself as male. He lived and appeared as a man in all areas of life, and had begun hormonal treatment to transition. The applicant filed a request with the Civil Status Office to change his name and gender marker to reflect his male gender identity, but the request was rejected. He appealed the decision to the Civil Registration Agency, which rejected the appeal on the grounds that the applicant provided no evidence that his current name prevented his integration in society, and no medical report supporting his request for a change of his gender marker. The applicant filed a claim with the Basic Court, and, only one week later and before a decision was rendered, referred the matter to the Constitutional Court. The applicant alleged the Civil Registration Agency’s decision violated his fundamental rights and freedoms, guaranteed by Articles 23 (Human Dignity), 24 (Equality Before the Law), and 36 (Right to Privacy) of the Constitution of Kosovo, and Article 8 (Right to Respect for Private and Family Life) of the European Convention on Human Rights. The applicant requested to be exempted from the legal obligation to exhaust all legal remedies before seeking a constitutional review on the grounds that the regular courts’ legal remedy would not be effective or sufficiently certain because of his special circumstances and the length of the proceedings. The Constitutional Court surveyed foreign constitutional courts via the Venice Commission for their respective relevant case law, confirming the general requirement for an applicant to exhaust his/her legal remedies before seeking constitutional review. The court noted the existence of a very similar and recently decided case, in which a person sued the Civil Status Office and Civil Registration Agency for their refusal to grant his request to change his name and gender marker from female to male after a successful gender reassignment surgery. The Basic Court ruled for the applicant and ordered the changes made, and the decision was upheld by the Court of Appeals. The Constitutional Court therefore determined that the regular courts could furnish an effective and sufficiently certain legal remedy for the applicant. Moreover, the court noted that the applicant was not seeking review of an already lengthy court proceeding, but merely of the possibility of one, and in any event the Basic Court and Court of Appeals disposed of the above mentioned precedent in reasonable time. Accordingly, the Constitutional Court ruled the applicant’s referral inadmissible because it was premature. (Also available in Srpski and English.)



The Center for Health, Human Rights and Development (CEHURD) v. Mulago National Referral Hospital High Court of Uganda (2013)


Abortion and reproductive health rights, International law

Here, Justice Lydia Mugambe held that Mulago National Referral Hospital’s negligence and the resulting disappearance of the couple’s baby amounted to psychological torture for the parents and violated their rights to health and access to information. Specifically, Justice Mugambe held that a woman’s inability to access sufficient antenatal care demonstrates a failure on the part of the State to fulfill its obligations under the right to health. The decision outlines Uganda’s obligations under international law to devote special attention and resources to women whose circumstances make them vulnerable.



Mukasa and Oyo v. Attorney General High Court of Uganda (2008)


LGBTIQ

Here, the Court held that government officials violated the constitutional rights of the plaintiff by illegally raiding plaintiff’s home without a search warrant, seizing plaintiff’s documents related to her work as an advocate for the human rights of LGBTQ persons, and illegally arresting a guest present at plaintiff’s home during the raid. Later, at the police station, plaintiff’s guest was forcibly undressed and fondled to “determine” her sex. The Court held that plaintiff and plaintiff’s guest were treated in an inhuman and degrading manner amounting to sexual harassment and indecent assault.



Sentencia nº 226 de Tribunal Supremo de Justicia (Número de Expediente: C07-0187) Tribunal Supremo de Justicia - Sala de Casación (Venezuela Supreme Court of Justice - Appeal Chamber) (2007)


International law, Sexual violence and rape

In 2001, the female victim was kidnapped, tortured, raped and kept in captivity for four months. All complaints made by her sister to the competent authorities related to her sister’s disappearance were dismissed by the police. In 2007, the competent criminal court issued a partial conviction to the offender. He was convicted for the crimes of kidnapping and captivity. However, the acts of physical, verbal, psychological and sexual violence were not considered by the court because, according to the court, there was not enough evidence to determine that sex and violence were committed without the plaintiff’s consent. Between 2001 and 2007 the victim went through many judicial processes. Decision No. C07-0187 was the final decision issued by Venezuelan Supreme Court of Justice, as the court of last recourse in Venezuela. After having exhausted all national procedures, the complainant referred her case to the international courts in order to sue the Venezuelan state for failing to safeguard and protect her human rights. On March 6, 2018 the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights found the Venezuelan state responsible for the violation of the rights established in the Inter-American Convention to Prevent and Punish Torture.



RRT Case No. 1101038 Refugee Review Tribunal (2011)


Female genital mutilation or female genital cutting, Forced and early marriage, Harmful traditional practices

The applicant appealed a decision denying her a protection visa. The applicant demonstrated evidence that if she returned to Uganda, she would be forced to undergo FGM. The applicant was a member of the Sabiny tribe, meaning her father’s family had the right under Ugandan law to take her away from her mother and compel her to obey traditional practices, including FGM. She further testified that if she returned to Uganda there would be a risk of abuse as she was a Christian, which was not accepted in her family village. Furthermore, when she was 12, her family found a potential husband for her, a witchdoctor who believed in Satan and professed sacrificing people to achieve a particular objective. She was therefore afraid that if she returned to Uganda, she would be forced to marry this individual, who believed that sacrificing people could bring him power and money. The tribunal found that the applicant was a person to whom Australia owed protection obligations.



Decision of the Constitutional Tribunal, Case 2208/2013 Constitutional Tribunal (2013)


Domestic and intimate partner violence

The Court held that it was not empowered to impose measures that guaranteed the physical and psychological integrity of domestic violence victims when other tribunals and bodies established for that purpose were competent. However, plaintiffs have the right to make the requests from the competent courts to take necessary measures in order to enforce its orders, using persuasive or coercive means.

La Corte sostuvo que no estaba facultada para imponer medidas que garantizaran la integridad física y psicológica de las víctimas de violencia doméstica donde otros tribunales y organismos establecidos con ese fin eran competentes. Sin embargo, los demandantes tienen el derecho de hacer las solicitudes de los tribunales competentes para tomar las medidas necesarias para hacer cumplir sus órdenes, utilizando medios persuasivos o coercitivos.



Naidoo v. Minister of Police Supreme Court of Appeal (Hoogste hof van Appèl) (2015)


Domestic and intimate partner violence

The plaintiff attempted to bring a charge of assault against her former husband under the Domestic Violence Act of 1998 (“the DVA”). She was incorrectly advised by a police officer that she required a protection order from the Magistrate Court before she could receive police assistance. She was then told by a second officer that her former husband would bring a similar charge of assault against her if she persisted. The plaintiff, along with her former husband, was arrested. She filed a claim for damages against, inter alia, the Minister of Police, arguing that (i) the officials involved were acting in the course and within the scope of their employment and (ii) the Minister of Police was vicariously liable for failing to comply with the DVA. The court agreed that the DVA requires the police to assist and provide the maximum protection possible to victims of domestic abuse.

Die eiseres het probeer om 'n klag van aanranding teen haar voormalige man onder die Wet op Huishoudelike Geweld van 1998 ("Die DVA") te bring. 'n Polisiebeampte het haar verkeerdelik aanbeveel dat sy 'n beskermingsbevel van die Landdroshof moes kry voordat sy polisiehulp kon ontvang. 'n Tweede polisiebeampte het vir haar gesê dat haar voormalige man 'n soortgelyke klag van aanranding teen haar sou bring as sy aanhou met haar klagte. Die eiseres, asook haar voormalige man, was gearresteer. Sy het 'n eis vir skadevergoeding teen, onder andere, die Minister van Polisie ingedien en het aangvoer dat (i) die betrokke beamptes volgens en binne die bestek van hul werk opgetree het en (ii) die Minister van Polisie onmiddellik aanspreeklik was vir die versuiming om die DVA te volg. Die hof het saamgestem dat die DVA vereis dat die polisie hulp en die maksimum moontlike beskerming vir slagoffers van huishoudelike mishandeling moet gee.



A., R.H. and other v. E.N. M Seguridad – P.F.A. and others Cámara Nacional de Apelaciones en lo Contenciosos Administrativo Federal (National Appeals Court for Federal Administrative Litigation) (2011)


Domestic and intimate partner violence, Femicide

The plaintiff daughters, R.H. and V.C., filed suit against the State government and certain police officials requesting damages for the loss of the lives of their mother, Mrs. S., and father, Mr. A. The day after her decision to flee her home together with her daughters and reside with other family members, Mrs. S. filed a civil proceeding against Mr. A. for domestic violence. Mr. A. was prohibited from approaching Mrs. S. and his daughters, and Mrs. S. obtained permission to remove her and her daughters’ personal belongings from their previous home while escorted by police officers. While accompanied by police officers and her sister to remove the belongings, Mr. A. killed Mrs. S. with a knife and subsequently committed suicide. In finding for the daughters in the case of Mrs. S., the appellate court identified the following factors in support of its finding: (1) the existence of a real and immediate risk that threatened the rights of Mrs. S. and her daughters that had the potential to materialize immediately and which was expressly referenced by the Office of Domestic Violence, (2) the risk related to a specific threat against a woman and was therefore particular, (3) the State knew of the risk or should have reasonably known of the risk and (4) the State could have reasonably prevented and avoided the materialization of the risk.

Las hijas de la demandante, RH y VC, presentaron una demanda contra el gobierno del estado y ciertos oficiales de policía que solicitaron daños por la pérdida de la vida de su madre, la Sra. S. y el padre, el Sr. A. El día después de su decisión de huir de la casa junto con sus hijas, la Sra. S. presentó un proceso civil contra el Sr. A. por violencia doméstica. Al Sr. A. se le prohibió acercarse a la Sra. S. y a sus hijas, y la Sra. S. obtuvo permiso para retirar a ella y las pertenencias personales de sus hijas de su hogar anterior mientras estaba escoltada por agentes de policía. Mientras estaba acompañada por oficiales de policía y su hermana para retirar las pertenencias, el Sr. A. mató a la Sra. S. con un cuchillo y posteriormente se suicidó. Al encontrar a las hijas en el caso de la Sra. S., la corte de apelaciones identificó los siguientes factores que respaldan su descubrimiento: (1) la existencia de un riesgo real e inmediato que amenazaba los derechos de la Sra. S. y sus hijas que tenía el potencial de materializarse de inmediato y que la Oficina de Violencia Doméstica hacía referencia expresamente, (2) el riesgo relacionado con una amenaza específica contra una mujer y, por lo tanto, era particular, (3) el Estado sabía del riesgo o debería haberlo hecho razonablemente conocido del riesgo y (4) el Estado podría haber prevenido y evitado razonablemente la materialización del riesgo.



Applicants McEwan, Clarke, et al. v. Attorney General High Court of the Supreme Court of Judicature (2013)


Gender discrimination, LGBTIQ

On February 6, 2009, four transgender individuals (A, B, C, D) identifying as female were arrested and charged with both Loitering and Wearing Female Attire. The police detained the Applicants for the entire weekend without explaining the charges against them. Wearing Female Attire is prohibited under Section 153(1)(XLV11) of the Summary Jurisdiction (Offences) Act, chapter 8:02. At the hearing on February 9, 2009, the Chief Magistrate commented that the Applicants were confused about their sexuality and told them they were men, not women, and needed to give their lives to Jesus Christ. The Applicants, who were all unrepresented at the time, pleaded guilty to the charge of Wearing Female Attire. Applicants A, B and D were fined $7,500, and Applicant C was fined $19,500 (Guyanese dollars). The loitering charges were eventually dismissed. The Applicants contacted the Society Against Sexual Orientation Discrimination (SASOD), the Equal Rights Trust’s Guyanese partner, about the case. SASOD agreed to represent Applicants and filed a Notice of Motion challenging the Magistrate’s Court decision and seeking redress. The Applicants argued that the police violated the Constitution because the officers failed to inform them of their arrest and did not permit the Applicants to retain counsel. They also argued that Section 153 (1) (XLV11) of the Summary Jurisdiction (Offences) Act 1893 is: (1) vague and of uncertain scope; (2) irrational and discriminatory on the ground of sex; and (3) a continuing threat to their right to protection against discrimination on the ground of sex and gender under the Constitution. Applicants further argued that, by instructing the Applicants to attend Church and give their lives to Jesus Christ, the Chief Magistrate discriminated against them on the basis of religion, which violated a fundamental norm of the Co-operative of the Republic of Guyana as a secular state in contravention to the Constitution. The Court upheld the Applicants’ claims in relation to their fundamental right to be informed of the reason for their arrest under Article 139 of the Constitution, but rejected all of their other claims. The Court found that the prohibition of cross-dressing for an improper purpose was not unconstitutional gender or sex discrimination, impermissibly vague, or undemocratic. The Court also struck SASOD’s application in full, finding that SASOD did not have standing to be an applicant in the case.



Institutional Violence Against Women (Docket XXVII.1o.3 C (10a.)) Mexico Supreme Court (2016)


Gender discrimination, Gender-based violence in general, International law

This isolated thesis is a relevant example of gender perspective case law, as the criteria issued by the collegiate tribunal is binding on all cases resolved by such tribunal. In addition, such criteria issued may be persuasive in similar cases arising in other federal courts. The Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment and Eradication of Violence Against Women “Convention of Belém do Pará,” states that violence against women is an offense against human dignity, which constitutes a violation of fundamental rights. In addition, Article 18 of the General Law for Women’s Access to a Life Free of Violence establishes that any public servant’s conduct, whether by act or omission, which is discriminatory or which impairs the woman’s human rights is considered institutional violence. Therefore, if a governmental authority deprives a woman of any right in the context of family law, the court shall acknowledge the authority’s intention to discriminate or impair the plaintiff’s human rights in its ruling. Further, any court ruling seeking to restore the woman’s rights shall identify the authority responsible for the violation. (Amparo Directo: http://sise.cjf.gob.mx/SVP/word1.aspx?arch=462/04620000174646210006004.d...)

Esta tesis aislada es un ejemplo relevante de la jurisprudencia de la perspectiva de género, ya que los criterios emitidos por el tribunal colegiado son vinculantes para todos los casos resueltos por dicho tribunal. Además, los criterios emitidos pueden ser persuasivos en casos similares que surjan en otros tribunales federales. La Convención Interamericana para Prevenir, Sancionar y Erradicar la Violencia contra la Mujer "Convención de Belém do Pará", afirma que violencia contra la mujer es un delito contra la dignidad humana y constituye una violación de los derechos fundamentales. Además, el artículo 18 de la Ley General para el Acceso de las Mujeres a una Vida Libre de Violencia establece que la conducta de cualquier servidor público, ya sea por acto u omisión, que sea discriminatoria o que perjudique los derechos humanos de la mujer se considera violencia institucional. Por lo tanto, si una autoridad gubernamental priva a una mujer de cualquier derecho en el contexto del derecho de familia, el tribunal reconocerá la intención de la autoridad de discriminar o menoscabar los derechos humanos del demandante en su decisión. Además, cualquier fallo judicial que busque restaurar los derechos de la mujer deberá identificar a la autoridad responsable de la violación.



平成25年(オ)1079 (2013 (O) No. 1079) 最高裁 (Supreme Court of Japan) (2015)


Divorce and dissolution of marriage, Gender discrimination

The plaintiff, who had divorced her former husband and remarried seven months later, sued the State claiming that she had suffered mental distress due to a provision in the Civil Code which barred women from remarrying until six months after the dissolution or rescission of her previous marriage. Both the District Court and the High Court dismissed the plaintiff’s argument, saying that the restriction was not necessarily unreasonable because it was meant to avert confusion over the paternity of any children born immediately after a divorce. The Supreme Court affirmed in part, holding that the provision violated the Constitution only to the extent that the restriction exceeded 100 days, because 1) the Civil Code already provided that a child born more than 200 days after the formation of a marriage or less than 300 days after the dissolution/rescission of a marriage would be presumed to have been conceived within the marriage, and 2) advances in medical technology and societal changes made it difficult to justify a restriction lasting beyond 100 days. However, the Supreme Court also affirmed the District Court and High Court in finding that the State was not liable in this case for failing to abolish the regulation, as this did not constitute an exceptional case that might incur liability under the State Redress Act. Shortly after this judgment, the Civil Code was amended to decrease the six-month waiting period to 100 days.

前夫と離婚し、7か月後に再婚した原告が、民法に基づく6か月の再婚禁止期間により精神的苦痛を受けたとして、国家賠償法に基づき損害賠償を求めた事案である。地裁、高裁ともに、再婚禁止期間に関する規定は、父子関係をめぐる紛争の発生を防ぐことにあり、直ちに過剰な制約であると言えないと判断し、原告の請求を棄却した。一方、最高裁は、民法では、婚姻の成立の日から200日を経過した後又は婚姻の解消の日から300日以内に生まれた子を当該婚姻に係る夫の子と推定していること、また、医療の発達及び社会の変化により、100日を超える制限を正当化することは困難であることなどから、100日を超える制限については憲法違反であるとした。しかし、最高裁は、国家賠償法の適用の観点から見た場合には、国家賠償法は適用されないとする地裁および高裁の判断を支持した。本判決直後、民法が改正され、6か月の再婚禁止期間が100日に短縮された。



Individual Application of Özlem Tuncel Kaya Constitutional Court (2016)


Domestic and intimate partner violence

The applicant, Ms. Kaya, applied to the Office of Public Prosecutor (the “OPP”), claiming that she had been the victim of domestic violence. After investigating, the OPP charged the applicant’s husband with domestic violence and went to trial. However, during the trial, the applicant withdrew her claim and said that the bruises she had submitted as evidence were actually the result of an accident at the couple’s home. The OPP dropped the charges against the applicant’s husband. Two years later, the applicant filed another claim with the OPP alleging that her husband stole her jewellery and again subjected her to domestic violence. The OPP notified the proper Court of First Instance for Family Affairs (the “Court of First Instance”). The Court issued a restraining order against the husband that prevented him from approaching the applicant and ordered that he pay alimony to her for four months. The government offered the applicant state housing for the victims of domestic violence, but she rejected the offer. The applicant was subjected to several more incidents of domestic violence. During that time, the OPP requested the Court of First Instance to issue a warrant for the arrest of the applicant’s husband. The Court of First Instance rejected the OPP’s request. The applicant appealed, but her appeal was dismissed because Ms. Kaya’s statements alone were not adequate evidence of domestic abuse. After Ms. Kaya appealed, the Constitutional Court ruled that Turkey had a duty to take affirmative steps to prevent further acts of domestic violence against the appellant and effectively investigate her claims in this case. However, after applying the legal framework addressing victims of domestic violence, the Constitutional Court ruled that Ms. Kaya’s fundamental rights under the framework had not been infringed. This decision is important because it demonstrates that even though there is a legal framework available for women affected by domestic violence, claims against state officials for failing to act on their duties under that framework need to be specific and supported by substantial evidence.



W.J. and L.N. v. Amkoah, Jamhuri Primary School, The Teachers Service Commission and the Attorney General (Petition No. 331 of 2011) High Court of Kenya at Nairobi (Constitutional and Human Rights Division) (2011)


International law, Sexual violence and rape, Statutory rape or defilement

In July 2010, W.J. and L.N, 12- and 13-year-old female students at Jamhuri Primary School, were invited to the home of their teacher, Astarikoh Henry Amkoah. Amkoah forced the girls to perform household chores and later attempted to defile W.J. in the restroom and defiled L.N. in the hall. On several occasions later that month, Amkoah raped both girls. The girls’ education was severely interrupted by the trauma of Amkoah’s attacks and L.N. dropped out of school completely. Ultimately, Amkoah was acquitted in criminal court. In this suit filed by their guardians, W.J. and L.N. sued claiming that Amkoah’s actions unconstitutionally interfered with their rights to health, education, and dignity, and claimed that the school and state should be vicariously liable for the teacher’s actions. They invited the court to look at the claims from the perspective of a tort in negligence and as a human rights violation. However, the violations took place prior to the adoption of a revised 2010 Constitution, so the Court was required to rely partially on the 1963 Constitution which did not include those same guarantees. Still, the 1963 Constitution offered a right to freedom and security of the person. Additionally, the Convention on the Rights of the Child, adopted through Kenya’s Children Act, promises children the right to be free from sexual or physical violence, the right to receive an education, and the right to dignity. As a result, the Court was able to rely on the guarantees of the Children Act. Moreover, Justice Ngugi recognized the 2010 constitutional right to dignity as a continuing right, meaning that while the initial crime may have occurred prior to the 2010 Constitution’s adoption, the continuous nature of the effects of sexual violence on an individual’s dignity make the provision applicable in this case. Here, the Court determined that the criminal acquittal would not serve as a bar to the action because of the differing standards of proof in a criminal and a civil trial. Importantly, the Court decided that “any educational or other institution in which teachers or other care givers commit acts of sexual abuse against those who have been placed under their care is vicariously liable for the wrongful acts of its employees.” The court noted that because children are particularly vulnerable, it is appropriate to impose strict liability on “those in charge of educational and other institutions . . . for abuses committed by those whom they have placed in charge of vulnerable groups such as minors in educational institutions” and held the four named plaintiffs—the teacher, the school, the teachers service commission, and the state—jointly and severally liable for damages of KSH two million for W.J. and KSH three million for L.N.



C.K. & 11 Others v. Commissioner of Police High Court of Kenya at Meru (2013)


Gender discrimination, International law, Statutory rape or defilement

The petitioners are eleven minors and the non-governmental organization that shelters, educates, and cares for the eleven minors. Each child claims to have been subjected to child abuse and defilement in Meru County, where police "neglected...or otherwise failed" to investigate or protect the children in any way. The High Court of Kenya held that the police have a duty to investigate allegations of sexual abuse made by female complainants, stating that “by failing to enforce existing defilement laws, the police have contributed to the development of a culture of tolerance for pervasive sexual violence against girl children and impunity.”



Decision No. 194/06-46 Constitutional Court of the Slovak Republic (2006)


Abortion and reproductive health rights, Forced sterilization

Mrs. I.G., Mrs. R.H., and Mrs. M.K. (the claimants of Roma ethnicity) were sterilized while giving birth to their children. The claimants initiated criminal proceedings on the grounds of unlawful sterilization, claiming that their consent (or informed consent in the case of R.H.) was not given. Criminal proceedings were stopped by the regional prosecutor with the conclusion that no unlawful act had been committed. The claimants filed a formal complaint against the decision, in part claiming that the investigation did not examine the substantive material issue, the lack of consent to sterilization. This formal complaint was dismissed by the regional prosecutor. The claimants petitioned the Constitutional Court to address the decision to discontinue criminal proceedings by the regional prosecutor; they claimed among other things the breach of their right to private and family life and of their right to privacy. The Constitutional Court held that sterilization was not a “life-saving” procedure, as claimed by the regional prosecutor and the hospital. Therefore, the explanation given by the regional prosecutor for the discontinuation of criminal proceedings on these grounds was unfounded. The Constitutional Court further held that the investigation did not exhaust all possible avenues, and completely ignored the issue of consent. This and the subsequent dismissal of the complaint amounted to inhumane or degrading treatment of the claimants affecting their private and family lives. The Constitutional Court awarded each claimant 50,000 SK (EUR 1,659.70) in damages and ordered the regional prosecutor to re-examine the issue.



K. v. Ministry of Safety and Security Constitutional Court of South Africa (Konstitusionele Hof van Suid Afrika) (2005)


Sexual violence and rape

K. sued to recover damages from the Minister of Safety and Security from being raped and assaulted by three uniformed and on-duty police sergeants. The High Court held that the actions of the police officers fell out of the scope of their employment and that the Minister could not be held vicariously liable for their conduct. The Court held that although the police officers' actions were obviously a clear deviation from their duty, there was a sufficiently close relationship between their employment and the wrongful conduct to hold the Minister liable.

K. het gedagvaar om skadevergoeding van die Minister van Veiligheid en Sekuriteit te verhaal as gevolg van haar verkragting en aanranding deur drie aan-diens en polisie-sersante met hul univorms aan. Die hooggeregshof het beslis dat die optrede van die polisiebeamptes buite die bestek van hul indiensneming val en dat die Minister nie middellik aanspreeklik gehou kan word vir hul optrede nie. Die Hof het beslis dat, hoewel die optrede van die polisiebeamptes uiteraard 'n duidelike afwyking van hul plig was, daar 'n voldoende noue verband bestaan ​​tussen hul indiensneming en die onregmatige optrede om die Minister aanspreeklik te hou.



V. v. Minister of Safety and Security Supreme Court of Appeal (Hoogste hof van Appèl) (2002)


Sexual violence and rape

The appellant was assaulted, raped, and robbed by Andre Gregory Mohamed, who had escaped from prison where he was facing 22 charges for indecent assault, rape and armed robbery. The appellant sued the State for damages, arguing that the police owed her a legal duty to take reasonable steps to prevent Mohamed from escaping and causing her harm and that they had negligently failed to comply with such duty. The Constitutional Court applied its recent holding in Carmichele v. Minister of Safety and Security, finding that the state is obliged both by the Constitution and by international law to protect women from violence. Thus, the police should be held liable for their negligence in not taking reasonable action to prevent Mohamed's escape, especially in light of the fact that they knew that Mohamed was a dangerous serial rapist who was likely to commit further offenses against women should he escape. The court affirmed the state's liability for any damages suffered by the applicant.

Die appellant is aangerand, verkrag en beroof deur Andre Gregory Mohamed, wat uit die tronk ontsnap het waar hy op 22 aanklagte teregstaan ​​vir onsedelike aanranding, verkragting en gewapende roof. Die appellant het die Staat vir skadevergoeding gedagvaar, met die argument dat die polisie is aan haar 'n wettiglike verpligting skuldig om redelike stappe te neem om te verhoed dat Mohamed ontsnap en haar skade te berokken en dat hulle nalatig was en versuim het om aan hierdie plig te voldoen. Die Konstitusionele Hof het hul onlangse beslissing in Carmichele v. Minister van Veiligheid en Sekuriteit toegepas en het bevind dat die staat deur die Grondwet sowel as die internasionale reg verplig is om vroue teen geweld te beskerm, en die polisie moet aanspreeklik gehou word vir die nalatigheid daarvan deur hul nie redelike stappe te doen het om die ontsnapping van Mohamed te voorkom nie, veral in die lig van die feit dat hulle geweet het dat Mohamed 'n gevaarlike reeksverkragter is wat waarskynlik verdere misdrywe teen vroue sou pleeg as hy sou ontsnap. Die Hof het die staat se aanspreeklikheid bevestig vir enige skade wat die applikant gely het.



Carmichele v. Minister of Safety and Security Constitutional Court of South Africa (Konstitusionele Hof van Suid Afrika) (2001)


International law, Sexual violence and rape

The applicant was sexually assaulted by a man who was awaiting trial for the attempted rape of another woman. Despite the seriousness of the alleged crime and the fact that the man had a prior rape conviction, the police and prosecutor had recommended that the man be released pending trial. The applicant sued the Minister for damages, arguing that the police and prosecutors had negligently failed to comply with a legal duty they owed to her to take steps to prevent the man from causing her harm. The High Court dismissed the applicant's claim and the Supreme Court of Appeal affirmed, holding that the police and prosecution did not owe her a duty of protection. On appeal, the Constitutional Court set aside the orders of the lower courts and remanded the case to the High Court for trial. It held that the State is obligated by the Constitution and international law to protect the dignity and security of women and in the circumstances, the police recommendation for the assailant's release could amount to wrongful conduct giving rise to liability. The Court also held that prosecutors, who are under a duty to place before the court any information relevant to the refusal or grant of bail, may be held liable for negligently failing to fulfill that duty.

Die applikant is seksueel aangerand deur 'n man wat verhoorafwagtend was weens die poging tot verkragting van 'n ander vrou. Ondanks die erns van die beweerde misdaad en die feit dat die man 'n vorige skuldigbevinding aan verkragting gehad het, het die polisie en aanklaer aanbeveel dat die man vrygelaat word afhangende verhoor. Die applikant het die Minister vir skadevergoeding gedagvaar, met die argument dat die polisie en aanklaers hul plig versuim het en nalatig was om stappe te doen om te voorkom dat die man haar skade berokken. Dit was hul wettige plig wat hul aan haar verskuldig was om stappe te doen om te voorkom dat die man haar skade berokken. Die Hooggeregshof het die aansoeker se eis van die hand gewys en die Hoogste Appèlhof het bevestig dat die polisie en aanklaers nie 'n beskermings plig aan haar verskuldig is nie. Op appèl het die Konstitusionele Hof die bevele van die laer howe tersyde gestel en die saak weer aan die hooggeregshof voorgelê. Daar is van mening dat die staat deur die Grondwet en die internasionale reg verplig is om die waardigheid en sekuriteit van vroue te beskerm, en in die omstandighede kan die polisie se aanbeveling vir die vrylating van die aanvaller neerkom op onregmatige optrede wat hul aanspreeklikheid tot gevolg het. Die Hof het ook bevind dat aanklaers wat onder die plig is om inligting rakende die weiering of toestaan ​​van borgtog voor die hof te plaas, aanspreeklik gehou kan word vir nalatige versuim om daardie plig na te kom.



Reports

Evaluation Report: Ireland, Group of Experts on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings (2022)


International law, Sexual violence and rape, Statutory rape or defilement, Trafficking in persons

The Council of Europe’s Group of Experts on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings (GRETA)’s report on Ireland concerns how Ireland prevents and prosecutes human trafficking. The report demonstrated that the total number of presumed trafficking victims in Ireland fell from 103 in 2017 to 44 in 2021. According to GRETA, sexual exploitation remains the primary form of exploitation in Ireland, but the number of people trafficked for labour exploitation in sectors including fishing, farming, construction, catering, and domestic work grew over the same period. However, GRETA noted that these figures may underestimate the situation in Ireland, partly due to the persisting limitations of the existing procedures for identifying victims. These limitations include the fact that the Human Trafficking Investigation and Coordination Unite of An Garda Síochána (Ireland’s police force) is the sole competent authority tasked with identifying the victims of human trafficking, and the obligation to speak with An Garda Síochána may discourage self-identification, according to the report. Highlighting certain areas where underreporting is likely, GRETA found that trafficking for labour exploitation remains under-recognised and under-reported, and trafficking for criminal exploitation is an area where victims are often not recognised as such. Nevertheless, the report notes a number of positive developments since GRETA’s last evaluation of Ireland in 2017. These include the establishment of a human trafficking stakeholders forum in 2020 (bringing together relevant state departments, agencies and civil society organisations) and the designation of the Irish Human Rights and Equality Commission as National Rapporteur for human trafficking. In sum, GRETA’s report urged the authorities in Ireland to take further action against human trafficking, notably by improving the prosecution of human traffickers and providing specialised shelters and compensation for victims. GRETA also urged the Irish authorities to adopt finalise a National Referral Mechanism, which ensures that different agencies are involved in identifying victims of all types of trafficking, and to provide trafficking victims with specialised assistance. Furthermore, GRETA noted that the number of investigations into human trafficking has been decreasing over the years, notes the report, and the number of prosecutions and convictions is very low. For instance, there have been no convictions for trafficking for labour exploitation in Ireland, despite the increasing number of identified suspected cases.



Submission to the United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women on Ireland’s combined sixth and seventh periodic reports (January 2017) (2017)


Gender discrimination, International law

Ireland is a party to CEDAW, to which Ireland acceded in 1985. Ireland also committed to having its record under the Convention reviewed periodically by the UN’s CEDAW Committee. Ireland was examined by the CEDAW Committee in February 2017 for the first time since 2005. Accordingly, the Irish Human Rights and Equality Commission (‘IHREC’) prepared a detailed report on Ireland’s record under the Convention to help inform the CEDAW Committee’s assessment of Ireland, and to highlight gaps in the protection of women’s rights in Ireland, submitting it to the CEDAW Committee in advance of the latter’s examination of Ireland. IHREC conducted an extensive nationwide consultation on the implementation of the Convention, conducting focus groups with marginalised groups of women, research visits to women living in detention facilities, and research visits to women seeking asylum and women refugees living in direct provision centres. In its submission, it was recommended that Ireland develop structures both at Governmental and parliamentary level to ensure the full implementation of the recommendations of the UN treaty monitoring bodies. In order to assist with implementing human rights obligations, IHREC considered that improvements need to be made to data collection systems. One such area where more data are needed is in the context of training of public officials in relation to women’s rights and gender equality. IHREC also observed that there exist gaps in the State’s ratification of international treaties in relation to treaties which have particular relevance to women’s rights, such as the Council of Europe’s Istanbul Convention.



Plan Nacional de Salud Sexual y Reproductiva 2014 -2018 (2014)


Abortion and reproductive health rights

The 2014-2018 National Strategy promoted strategic objectives such as improving the sexual and reproductive health of the Paraguayan population. This was to be achieved through the development of fair, equitable, and inclusive public policies with a gendered and intercultural focus.

El Plan Nacional 2014-2018 promovió objetivos estratégicos como mejorar la salud sexual y reproductiva de la población paraguaya. Esto se lograría a través del desarrollo de políticas públicas justas, equitativas e incluyentes con enfoque de género e interculturalidad.



Akcioni Plan implementacije Strategije suprotstavljanja trgovini ljudima (National Action Plan to counter human trafficking) (2016)


International law, Trafficking in persons

This document provides a background to the history of trafficking in human beings in Bosnia and reflects on the implementation of the previous counter-trafficking plan, which was in place for 2013-2015. International resources, including the international political and legal framework, are explained in the context of the counter-trafficking plan in Bosnia. Specific actions are detailed to achieve each of five strategic objectives: (1) improve the support system for combating trafficking; (2) efficiently prosecute trafficking and related crimes; (3) prevent THB through risk reduction; (4) efficiently protect and assist trafficking victims; (5) strengthen the partnership and cooperation among stakeholders involved in combating trafficking. English translation of 2016-2019 plan available here. 2020-2023 plan in Bosnian available here. 2013-2015 plan in Bosnian available here and in English here.



Whose Justice? The Women of Bosnia and Herzegovina are Still Waiting (2009)


Gender violence in conflict

This report, published by Amnesty International, documents how the Bosnian authorities have violated a wide range of rights of the survivors of rape and other forms of sexual violence. The report discusses the prevalence of rape and other forms of sexual violence against women during the 1992-1995 war in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It then considers how successive governments have consistently failed to bring those responsible to justice, ensure survivors’ access to an effective remedy, and provide survivors of sexual violence with reparations. Also available in Bosnian and French through External URL.



Akcioni plan za implementaciju UNSCR 1325 Žene, mir i sigurnost 2018-2022 (Action Plan for UNSCR 1325 Implementation of Women, Peace, and Security) (2018)


Employment discrimination, Gender discrimination

A framework strategic document for inclusion of the principle of gender equality in all areas of social life, providing guidelines for development of operational plans of institutions at all levels of government in Bosnia. It is orientated around three key strategic goals. First, the development, implementation, and monitoring of the program of measures for advancement of gender equality within governmental institutions. This first goal refers to the following areas of gender inequality: (i) gender-based violence; (ii) public life and decision making; (iii) labor, employment, access to economic resources; (iv) education, science, culture, sport; (v) health, prevention, protection; (vi) social protection; (vii) security. The second goal is establishing and strengthening systems, mechanisms, and instruments to achieve gender equality. This goal (i) refers to coordinating and monitoring the implementation of the Gender Action Plan in Bosnia, as well as international and domestic gender equality standards; and (ii) considers raising awareness of gender equality, and monitoring and assessing progress in reaching gender equality. Finally, the third goal is to establish and strengthen co-operation and partnership, which (i) refers to cooperation at regional and international levels, and (ii) takes into account cooperation with civil society organizations and the academic community. English translation available here.



Посебан протокол о поступању полицијских службеника у случајевима насиља над женама у породици и у партнерским односима (Special Protocol on Conduct of Police Officers in Cases of Domestic and Intimate Partner Violence against Women) (2013)


Domestic and intimate partner violence

The objective of the protocol is the standardization of conduct of police officers in cases of domestic and intimate partner violence against women, as well as the specialization of certain police officers who will participate in the police response in these cases. (Official English translation available through External URL.)



Мултисекторска сарадња – институционални одговор на насиље над женама (Multisectoral Cooperation – Institutional Response to Violence against Women) (2013)


Domestic and intimate partner violence

This publication aims to present together the institutional solutions for coordinating cooperation between government and other stakeholders in service of victims of domestic and intimate partner violence. The adoption of the general and the special protocols by the Serbian Government helps achieve the objectives of Strategic Area 3: International Cooperation of the National Strategy for Prevention and Elimination of Domestic and Intimate Partner Violence adopted in April 2011. (Official English translation available through External URL.)



Avon Global Center 2013 Women and Justice Conference Report (2014)


Acid violence, Gender discrimination, Female genital mutilation or female genital cutting, Harmful traditional practices, Gender violence in conflict, Forced and early marriage, Gender-based violence in general

In December 2013, the Avon Global Center hosted its annual conference in New York, NY on "State Responsibility to End Violence Against Women: The Due Diligence Principle and the Role of Judges."


International Case Law

L.F. v Ireland, K.O’S. v Ireland, W.M. v Ireland European Court of Human Rights (2020)


Abortion and reproductive health rights

The three applicants in these three cases – L.F. (External URL below), K.O’S. and W.M. – are Irish citizens. Each gave birth to children in three hospitals in Ireland in the 1960s. Each applicant underwent surgical symphysiotomies in the respective hospitals during or in advance of labour. Their cases were among ten applications brought by women to the European Court of Human Rights (“ECtHR”) who had undergone such a procedure in Ireland around the same time. All three applicants alleged that they had not been informed about the procedure and had not given their full and informed consent. They stated that they had suffered physical and psychological trauma as a result of the procedure. The symphysiotomy procedure was uncommon in Western Europe around the time, but in Ireland, it was revived in the 1940s and continued to be used until the 1980s. Following a 2011 report into the use of the procedure in Ireland, the Minister for Health announced the establishment of an ex gratia payment scheme offering compensation to women who had undergone the procedure between 1940 and 1990. However, some women, including the applicants in these cases, instituted domestic proceedings. In L.F.’s case, the High Court found that, during the time in question, the procedure had been a reasonable though limited option. This decision was upheld by the Court of Appeal, and the Supreme Court refused L.F. leave to appeal. K.O’S. and W.M. subsequently abandoned their domestic claims. Further, none of the three applicants applied to the ex gratia payment scheme, as they all believed that there was no possibility of any acknowledgment of a breach of their rights. The three women then applied to the ECtHR in 2017, relying on Articles 3 (prohibition of inhuman or degrading treatments), 8 (right to respect for private and family life), and 13 (right to an effective remedy of the Convention). The applicants complained that the use of the procedure in Ireland had not been the subject of a Convention-compliant domestic investigation and that, in addition, they had been unable to fully litigate their claims at the domestic level. K.O’S. also complained that the State had failed in its obligation to protect women from inhuman and degrading treatment by allowing symphysiotomies to take place. In 2020, the ECtHR declared that each application was inadmissible. In respect of K.O’S.’s argument, the Court found that she had failed to exhaust domestic remedies as she had not made that complaint before the domestic courts. In respect of the other two applicants, their applications were refused on the grounds that they were manifestly ill-founded.



The Society for the Protection of Unborn Children Ireland Ltd v. Stephen Grogan and others Court of Justice of the European Union (1991)


Abortion and reproductive health rights, International law

Pursuant to Article 177 of the European Economic Community treaty (“EEC treaty”), the High Court of Ireland requested a preliminary ruling on (i) whether abortion comes within the definition of “services” in Article 60 of the EEC treaty; (ii) whether a Member State can prohibit the dissemination of information about the identity, location, and means of communication with an abortion clinic in another Member State; and (iii) whether there is a right at Community law level to distribute such information. The underlying case was brought by an anti-abortion NGO against officers of student associations regarding the latter’s distribution of information on abortion clinics in another Member State in Ireland. The Court of Justice held that while medical termination of pregnancy, performed in accordance with the law of the State in which it is carried out, constitutes a “service” within the meaning of Article 60 of the treaty, Article 59’s prohibition of restrictions on the supply of “services” did not apply to the information-dissemination activity of the student associations (which was not done in cooperation with the clinics). The Court reasoned that the link between the dissemination of information with the clinics’ services was too tenuous for the prohibition on distribution of information to be regarded as a “restriction” on the provision of the services. In 2018, Ireland enacted the Health (Regulation of Termination of Pregnancy) Act, which allows abortion (i) during the first 12 weeks of pregnancy, (ii) when the fetus has a condition that is likely fatal, or (iii) to protect the life or health of the woman.



A, B and C v. Ireland European Court of Human Rights (2010)


Abortion and reproductive health rights, International law

In this case, the three applicants were Irish residents, but had abortions in the United Kingdom because abortion was unlawful in Ireland. Two of the applicants sought abortions for health and/or wellbeing-related reasons, while the third applicant was unable to establish her eligibility for a lawful abortion in Ireland. The third applicant was in remission for cancer and, due to a lack of information on the impact of the pregnancy on her remission and the effect of her treatment on the pregnancy, sought the abortion because of the risks involved with the pregnancy. The court found that while the European Convention of Human Rights did not confer a right to abortion, the prohibition of abortion in circumstances involving the applicant’s health and/or well-being, and the fact that the third applicant was unable to establish her eligibility came within the scope of the applicants’ right to their private lives under Article 8 of the Convention. The Court found no violation of Article 8 with respect to the first and second applicants because the interference with the right was in accordance with Irish law and “moral values deeply embedded in the fabric of society in Ireland”; however, the Court found that the prohibition violated the third applicant’s Article 8 right because there were no “effective and accessible procedures” that would allow the third applicant to establish that she qualified for a lawful abortion in Ireland. The State therefore had failed to comply with the “positive obligation to secure to the third applicant effective respect for her private life by reason of the absence of any implementing legislative or regulatory regime providing an accessible and effective procedure by which she could have established whether she qualified for a lawful abortion in Ireland.” In 2018, Ireland enacted the Health (Regulation of Termination of Pregnancy) Act, which allows abortion (i) during the first 12 weeks of pregnancy, (ii) when the fetus has a condition that is likely fatal, or (iii) to protect the life or health of the woman.



Whelan v Ireland (2017)


Abortion and reproductive health rights, International law

In 2017, the Committee (referring back to its decision in Mellet v Ireland), found violations of the same provisions (Articles 7 (freedom from torture, cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment), 17 (right to privacy), and 26 (equal protection of the law)) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (“ICCPR”) in a similar factual situation a woman in Ireland, pregnant with a fetus diagnosed with a fatal abnormality, was unable to obtain an abortion in Ireland and had to travel to the UK to do so. In 2018, Ireland enacted the Health (Regulation of Termination of Pregnancy) Act, which allows abortion (i) during the first 12 weeks of pregnancy, (ii) when the fetus has a condition that is likely fatal, or (iii) to protect the life or health of the woman.



Mellet v Ireland United Nations Human Rights Committee (2016)


Abortion and reproductive health rights, International law

The complainant in this case was informed that her fetus was suffering from a fatal fetal abnormality and would die in utero. At the time, she was unable to terminate her pregnancy in Ireland, so she traveled to the UK to obtain an abortion there, returning after 12 hours because she could not afford to stay longer. After returning to Ireland, she had no access to aftercare or counseling. The complainant applied to the UN Human Rights Committee (“the Committee”), claiming that Ireland had violated her rights under Articles 2(1) (freedom from discrimination, including sex-based), 3 (gender equality), 7 (freedom from torture, cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment), 17 (right to privacy), 19 (freedom of information, including health-related), and 26 (equal protection of the law) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (“ICCPR”). The Committee found that because of the unavailability of abortion and other care, Ireland had violated the complainant’s rights under the following ICCPR articles: Art. 7 by denying the complainant reproductive health care and bereavement support, forcing her to continue carrying a dying fetus, compelling her to travel abroad to terminate her pregnancy, and causing her to feel extremely vulnerable, stigmatized, and abandoned; Art. 17 by interfering arbitrarily in the complainant’s right to privacy by denying respect for her physical and psychological integrity and reproductive autonomy; and Art. 27 by discriminating against the complainant for obtaining an abortion because the Irish healthcare system provides bereavement counseling to pregnant women after stillbirth resulting from carrying a fetus with fatal impairments to term, but not to women who terminate such pregnancies. The Committee held that Ireland had to provide the complainant with an effective remedy, including adequate compensation, and had to amend domestic law on the voluntary termination of pregnancy to comply with the ICCPR. In 2018, Ireland enacted the Health (Regulation of Termination of Pregnancy) Act, which allows abortion (i) during the first 12 weeks of pregnancy, (ii) when the fetus has a condition that is likely fatal, or (iii) to protect the life or health of the woman.



Šaltinytė v. Lietuva (Šaltinytė v. Lithuania) European Court of Human Rights (2021)


Gender discrimination, International law

The applicant was a low-income single mother whose request for housing assistance was refused because she was above the age threshold to qualify as a “young family.” The Court unanimously ruled that the limit of 35 years old for eligibility to receive housing subsidy did not violate Article 14 of the European Convention of Human Rights, which provides protection against discrimination, due to objective data showing that such age limitation was a proportional measure.

Pareiškėja buvo mažas pajamas gaunanti vieniša motina, kurios prašymas suteikti paramą būstui buvo atmestas, nes ji viršijo „jaunos šeimos“ amžiaus ribą. Teisingumo Teismas vienbalsiai nusprendė, kad 35 metų amžiaus riba gauti būsto subsidiją nepažeidžia Europos žmogaus teisių konvencijos 14 straipsnio, kuriuo užtikrinama apsauga nuo diskriminacijos, nes objektyvūs duomenys rodo, kad toks amžiaus apribojimas yra proporcinga priemonė. Šaltinį galima rasti lietuvių kalba (neoficiali versija): https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-215825



Beizaras ir Levickas prieš Lietuvą (Beizaras and Levickas v. Lithuania) European Court of Human Rights (2020)


Gender discrimination, Gender-based violence in general, International law, LGBTIQ

Two men published a Facebook post of them kissing, which sparked hundreds of homophobic comments. At their request, an LGBTQ rights advocacy organization complained to the prosecutor’s office, asking to launch an investigation for instigation of homophobic hatred and violence. Both the prosecutor’s office and court on appeal refused on the basis that the post was “eccentric” and the authors’ comments, even though obscene, did not contain actual criminal act and intent. The ECtHR unanimously ruled that Lithuania violated the right to an effective remedy (Article 13), awarding the applicants non-pecuniary damages.

Du vyrai susilaukė šimtų homofobinių komentarų socialiniame tinkle paskelbę įrašą, kuriame jie bučiuojasi. Jų prašymu LGBTIQ teisių gynimo organizacija pasiskundė prokuratūrai, prašydama pradėti tyrimą dėl homofobinės neapykantos ir smurto kurstymo. Tiek prokuratūra, tiek apeliacinis teismas prašymą atmetė, remdamiesi tuo, kad įrašas buvo „ekscentriškas“, o autorių komentaruose nebuvo rimto pagrindo ir visų nusikaltimo požymių. EŽTT vienbalsiai nusprendė, kad Lietuva pažeidė pareiškėjų teisę į veiksmingą teisinės gynybos priemonę bei priteisė pareiškėjams neturtinę žalą. Vertimas lietuvių kalba: https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-203614



Yildirim gg. Österreich [C/39/D/6/2005] CEDAW Committee (UNO-Frauenrechtsausschuss) (2007)


Divorce and dissolution of marriage, Domestic and intimate partner violence, Femicide, Harmful traditional practices, International law

The decedent sought to divorce her husband who threatened to kill her and her children if she ever initiated divorce proceedings. In response to the decedent’s numerous reports of assault and dangerous criminal threats, the Austrian police issued an expulsion and prohibition-to-return order against her husband. The police also recommended that her husband be detained, but the Vienna Public Prosecutor twice denied the request. The decedent appealed to the Vienna Intervention Center (“VIC”) after her husband repeatedly came to her workplace to harass and threaten her; the VIC asked the police to pay more attention to the decedent’s case. When the decedent finally filed a petition for divorce at the Vienna District Court of Hernals, her husband followed her home from work and fatally stabbed her. The complaint stated that the State’s action violated Article 1 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (“CEDAW”) because the Austrian criminal justice system negatively impacts women through the public prosecutors’ failure to treat cases of domestic violence seriously. The complaint also stated that the failure of judicial officials and law enforcement to collect data and maintain statistics on domestic violence instances denied the decedent the enjoyment of her human rights in violation of Article 2 and 3 of CEDAW on eliminating laws, regulations, and customs that adversely effect women. Finally, the complaint stated a violation of Article 5 of CEDAW on eliminating social and cultural attitudes towards women in the State’s continual treatment of domestic violence as a social or domestic problem rather than a serious crime. The Committee held that the Austrian police force’s failure to detain the decedent’s estranged husband was in breach of the State’s due diligence obligation to protect the decedent, noting that a perpetrator’s rights cannot superseded women’s human rights to life and to physical and mental integrity. The Committee also took note of the correlation between lenient attitudes towards women’s cultural subordination and domestic violence. Although Austria prosecuted the decedent’s husband to the fullest extent for her death, the Committee found violations of Articles 2 and 3 upon which they recommended that Austria strengthen its implementation and monitoring of the Federal Act for the Prevention against Violence within the Family, and ensure enhanced coordination between police and judicial officers to protect women victims of gender-based violence.

Die Verstorbene wollte sich von ihrem Ehemann scheiden lassen. Dieser drohte ihr, dass er sie und die Kinder umbringen würde, sollte sie jemals ein förmliches Scheidungsverfahren anstrengen. Als Reaktion auf die zahlreichen Anzeigen der Verstorbenen von Übergriffen und gefährlichen Drohungen erließ die österreichische Polizei einen Wohnungsverweis und ein Rückkehrverbot gegen den Ehemann. Die Polizei hat außerdem empfohlen, den Ehemann festzunehmen, allerdings hat die Staatsanwaltschaft Wien dies zweimal zurückgewiesen. Die Verstorbene hat die Wiener Interventionsstelle gegen Gewalt in der Familie („Interventionsstelle“) angerufen, nachdem der Ehemann wiederholt auf ihrer Arbeitsstelle erschien, um sie zu belästigen und zu bedrohen; die Interventionsstelle ersuchte die Polizei, der Angelegenheit um die Verstorbene mehr Aufmerksamkeit zu schenken. Letztlich beantragte die Verstorbene die Scheidung bei dem Bezirksgericht Hernals in Wien. Kurz darauf folgte der Ehemann seiner Frau von der Arbeit nach Hause und erstach sie. Die Beschwerde bringt vor, dass das staatliche Verhalten eine Verletzung von Artikel 1 der UN-Frauenrechtskonvention darstelle. Das Wiener Strafsystem wirkt sich negativ auf Frauen aus, indem die Staatsanwaltschaft versagt, Fälle von häuslicher Gewalt ernst zu nehmen. Weiterhin geht aus der Beschwerde hervor, dass das Unterlassen der Gerichtsbediensteten und Staatsanwaltschaft, Daten zu sammeln, und Statistiken über häusliche Gewalt zu führen, der Verstorbenen das Recht nahm, ihre Menschenrechte wahrzunehmen. Dies stelle eine Verletzung von Artikel 2 und 3 der UN-Frauenrechtskonvention dar, die eine Vernichtung von Gesetzen, Richtlinien und sonstigen Gewohnheiten, die Frauen negativ beeinflussen, verlangen. Zuletzt meinen die Beschwerdeführer, eine Verletzung von Artikel 5 der UN-Frauenrechtskonvention liege vor. Hiernach obliegt dem Staat eine Pflicht, soziale und kulturelle Vorurteile zu überkommen, um häusliche Gewalt gegenüber Frauen als ernstzunehmende Straftat zu erkennen, und nicht weiterhin als rein soziales oder häusliches Problem abzutun. Der Ausschuss stellte fest, dass das Unterlassen der österreichischen Polizei, den Ehemann festzunehmen, die staatliche Schutzpflicht gegenüber der Verstorbenen verletzte. Hierbei betonte er, dass die Rechte des Straftäters nicht schwerer wiegen können als die Menschenrechte der Frau auf Leben und psychische sowie physische Unversehrtheit. Der Ausschuss hat darüber hinaus auf die Korrelation zwischen der kulturellen Unterwerfung einer Frau und häuslicher Gewalt hingewiesen. Obwohl die Staatsanwaltschaft den Ehemann wegen der Tötung der Verstorbenen mit allen rechtlichen Mitteln verfolgte, befand der Ausschuss, dass der Staat seine Pflichten aus Artikel 2 und 3 der UN-Frauenrechtskonvention verletzte. Der Ausschuss empfahl daher, dass Österreich die Durchsetzung und Überwachung der Einhaltung des Bundesgesetzes zum Schutz vor Gewalt in der Familie verbessert, eine verbessere Koordinierung von Polizeiarbeit und Staatsanwaltschaft sicherstellt, um Frauen vor Gewalt zu schützen.



Goekce v. Austria (Goekce gg. Österreich) [C/39/D/5/2005] CEDAW Committee (2007)


Domestic and intimate partner violence, Femicide, International law

The decedent’s husband shot and killed her in front of their two daughters in 2002. Before her death, the decedent had obtained three expulsion and prohibition-to-return orders against her husband in response to repeated episodes of domestic violence. The Vienna Public Prosecutor denied police requests to detain the decedent’s husband, and stopped the prosecution against him on the basis of insufficient grounds two days before the murder. Police reports show that the law enforcement failed to respond in a timely fashion to the dispute that resulted in the decedent’s murder. The decedent’s heirs brought this complaint to the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women on behalf of the decedent. The complaint argued that Austria’s Federal Act for the Protection against Violence within the Family provided ineffective protection for victims of repeated, severe spousal abuse, and that women are disproportionately affected by the State’s failure to prosecute and take seriously reports of domestic violence. The Committee found that although Austria has established a comprehensive model to address domestic violence, State actors must investigate reports of this crime with due diligence to effectively provide redress and protection. The Committee concluded that the police knew or should have known that the decedent was in serious danger, and were therefore responsible for failing to exercise due diligence in protecting her. By allowing the perpetrator’s rights to supersede the decedent’s human rights to life and to physical and mental integrity, Austrian law enforcement violated its obligations to end gender discrimination through the modification or enactment of appropriate legislation under Article 2 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (“CEDAW”), and its Article 3 obligation to guarantee women’s exercise and enjoyment of human rights and fundamental freedom on a basis of equality with men. Particularly, the Committee recommended that Austria strengthen its implementation and monitoring of the Federal Act for the Protection against Violence within the Family, respond to complaints of domestic violence with due diligence, and provide adequate sanctions for failure to do so.

Der Ehemann erschoss die Verstorbene vor den Augen der beiden Töchter im Jahre 2002. Vor ihrem Tod hat die Verstorbene in Reaktion auf wiederholte Ausbrüche von häuslicher Gewalt bereits dreimal ein Hausverbot und ein Rückkehrverbot gegen ihren Ehemann erwirkt. Die Staatsanwaltschaft Wien wies das Ersuchen der Polizei, den Ehemann festzunehmen, wiederholt zurück. Zwei Tage vor der Tötung hat die Staatsanwaltschaft die Strafverfolgung mangels ausreichender Beweislage eingestellt. Aus den Polizeiberichten ergibt sich, dass die Strafverfolgung versagt hat, zeitgemäß auf die Gefahrenlage, aus der sich die Tötung ergeben hat, zu reagieren. Die Beschwerde wurde von den Erben der Verstorbenen in ihrem Namen angestrengt und vor den Frauenrechtsausschuss der UNO gebracht. Hierin argumentieren die Erben, dass das Bundesgesetz zum Schutz vor Gewalt in der Familie keinen ausreichenden Schutz für Opfer von wiederholter, ernstzunehmender häuslicher Gewalt bietet und Frauen das Versagen der staatlichen Strafverfolgung dessen überproportional oft erfahren.



Kontrová v. Slovakia European Court of Human Rights (2007)


Domestic and intimate partner violence, International law

Domestic and intimate partner violence. The claimant, a married women with two children, filed a criminal complaint against her husband, accusing him of assaulting and beating her with an electric cord. In her complaint, she mentioned the long history of physical and psychological abuse by her husband and submitted a medical report indicating that her latest injuries would prevent her from working for at least seven days. This statement was later modified upon the advice of a police officer, so that it could have been treated as a minor offence and the police decided to take no further action. One month later, the Police Department received two night emergency calls reporting that the claimant's husband had a shotgun and was threatening to kill himself and the children. Despite the fact that the following morning the claimant went to the police station and inquired about her criminal complaint from the previous month as well as the incident of the previous night, the police took no further action and no new criminal complaint was filed. Four days later, the claimant's husband shot and killed their two children and himself. Criminal proceedings initiated against the police officers involved in the case on the grounds of dereliction of duty produced no tangible results, and the claimant's complaints lodged in the Constitutional Court were dismissed twice on the grounds that they were inadmissible. The claimant filed a claim with the European Court of Human Rights alleging a breach of the protection of her rights to life, privacy, a fair trial and right for an effective remedy. The local police department knew all about the claimant and her family, which triggered various specific obligations, such as registering the complaint, launching a criminal investigation and commencing criminal proceedings against the claimant's husband, which the police failed to do. The direct consequence of this was the death of the claimant's children and husband. The European Court further held that the Slovak Republic failed to fulfill its obligation to achieve an 'effective' remedy and the claimant's compensation. The only action available to the claimant related to the protection of her personal integrity and this provided her with no such remedy. This amounted to a breach of right to an effective remedy , in connection with a breach right to life. The European Court held that an examination of the other Articles was not necessary and awarded her EUR 25,000 in damages.



I.G. and Others v. Slovakia European Court of Human Rights (2013)


Abortion and reproductive health rights, Forced sterilization, International law

Three applicants, all Roma women, alleged that a public hospital sterilized them without their consent and that they were unable to obtain appropriate redress from the Slovakian authorities. Although the Court found that the third applicant’s children lacked standing to continue the proceedings in their mother’s stead, it ruled in favor of the first and second applicants. The first and second applicants argued that they had been denied their right to have a family because the hospital sterilized them without consent. The Court accepted that the first applicant felt debased and humiliated when she learned that she had been sterilized without her or her legal guardians’ prior informed consent. Considering the nature of the sterilization, its circumstances, the applicant’s age, and the fact that she was a member of a vulnerable population group, the Court concluded that the second applicant’s sterilization was also with a violation of the requirement of respect for her human freedom and dignity. The Court’s decision ultimately rested on Article 3 of the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, which states, “No one shall be subjected to torture or to inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.”



Soňa Šimková v. Slovakia European Court of Human Rights (2005)


Divorce and dissolution of marriage, International law

The applicant married Mr. S. in 1994, and had a daughter with him in 1995. Since that time, the applicant and Mr. S. never lived in a common household. In 1996, the District Court pronounced the dissolution of marriage, which became final in 1997, and gave custody to the applicant. Mr. S. was ordered to contribute to child maintenance. In 1996, the applicant brought an action against Mr. S. with the District Court, seeking an order that he contribute to her maintenance as his spouse. After multiple hearings, appeals, and remittance to the District Court, the District Court finally ruled in 2002 that during the relevant period, Mr. S. had been obliged to contribute to the applicant’s maintenance. The Regional Court dismissed both parties’ appeals. In 1997, the applicant lodged an action with the District Court seeking an order that Mr. S. contribute to her post-divorce maintenance, as she was unable to provide for herself alone. After another lengthy process of hearings, appeals, remittance, and re-examination, the District Court ruled in 2002 that Mr. S. had been obliged to contribute to the applicant’s maintenance. Upon Mr. S.’s appeal, the Regional Court modified the judgement in 2003 and detailed new amounts Mr. S. must pay. In 2000, the applicant lodged a petition with the Constitutional Court complaining of undue delays in the above two sets of proceedings and two other sets of proceedings. The court found that the District Court had violated her right to a hearing without unjustified delay in the above actions. However, at that time, the Constitutional Court lacked jurisdiction to draw legal consequences from the finding. The applicant then argued the above proceedings violated her right to the “reasonable time” requirement in Article 6 Section 1 of the European Convention. The Government admitted that this right had been violated. The court held that there had been a violation of this requirement, and that the respondent State must pay the applicant damages.



M.M.B. v. Slovakia European Court of Human Rights (2019)


International law, Statutory rape or defilement

When the applicant was four years old, her mother requested that she be examined by psychologists as the mother suspected the applicant’s father of sexual abuse. Psychologists concluded that the applicant exhibited symptoms of Child Abuse and Neglect (CAN) syndrome. Based on this report, the mother lodged a criminal complaint for sexual abuse against the father. Another psychological expert produced an opinion, which found that the applicant showed no signs of sexual abuse. The criminal prosecution was discontinued. A year later, the applicant’s mother again lodged a complaint based on the applicant’s additional allegations of sexual abuse by her father. The investigator opened a criminal prosecution and commissioned three expert opinions. One concluded that the applicant did not display signs of abuse and the other two concluded that the applicant did display symptoms of sexual abuse. The investigator charged the father with sexual abuse, but the regional prosecutor’s office annulled the decision to press charges and discontinued the criminal prosecution after the father filed a complaint. The applicant lodged a constitutional complaint challenging this decision, alleging that her Article 8 right to an effective investigation had been violated by the domestic authorities’ investigation into the allegation of abuse by her father. The Constitutional Court dismissed the applicant’s complaint. The European Court of Human Rights held that the national authorities had violated the applicant’s Article 8 right to respect for private and family life by failing to adequately investigate the abuse allegations. The Court ordered the State to pay damages because authorities ended proceedings without compelling reason and despite several expert witnesses indicating that the applicant had been sexually abused by her father.



Case of Airey v. Ireland European Court of Human Rights (1979)


Domestic and intimate partner violence, International law

The petitioner, a domestic violence survivor, could not find affordable legal assistance to appear before a court. The Court ruled that member states must guarantee effective access to the courts, including access to counsel.



O’Keeffe v. Ireland European Court of Human Rights (2014)


International law, Sexual violence and rape, Statutory rape or defilement

The applicant was repeatedly sexually abused by her school principal during the 1970s. When these events were reported to the police in 1996, the complete police investigation revealed that the principal had sexually abused 21 former students during a 10-year period. In total, the principal was charged with 386 criminal offences of sexual abuse. The applicant brought a civil action against the Minister for Education and the Attorney General of Ireland, claiming that the State had vicarious liability for the personal injury she suffered as a result of the abuse in the public school. The High Court ruled that the state did not have vicarious liability for its employee’s actions, and the Supreme Court dismissed the applicant's appeal. In January 2014, the applicant brought a case to the European Court of Human Rights ("ECtHR"), alleging violations of Article 3 (torture or inhuman or degrading treatment) of the European Convention on Human Rights, and Article 13, alleging that she did not have an effective domestic remedy. The ECtHR held the following: (1) the Irish State failed to meet its positive obligation, in violation of Article 3; (2) there was no violation of the procedural obligations under Article 3 since an effective official investigation into the ill-treatment of the applicant had been carried out in 1995 once the a complaint was made by another former pupil to the police; (3) the applicant did not have an adequate remedy available to her regarding her Article 3 complaints, in violation of Article 13; and (4) the applicant was awarded 85,000 euros for the costs and expenses of the proceedings. As a result of this case, Irish Prime Minister Enda Kenny gave an apology to the applicant, and, in August 2014, the Irish government submitted an Action Plan to the Council of Europe setting out the measures that have been taken since this ECtHR decision.



G.N. v. Burundi Committee Against Torture (2017)


International law, Statutory rape or defilement

G.N., a mother, brought the action on behalf of her nine-year-old daughter, C.N. A friend of the family, Captain D.K., was conducting night patrols and he stopped by the family home. G.N.’s husband was not at home, so the Captain said he was going to leave and wanted to take C.N. with him home. G.N. declined saying it was late, but when she returned to the kitchen to finish cooking the meal and then called for her daughter, she was no longer there. Neighbors informed G.N. that she had left with D.K. She looked for C.N., but did not see her. The serviceman was a friend of the family. She thought C.N. would soon return. When G.N.’s husband returned home, she informed him that C.N. had not returned and he reassured her so they decided to wait. C.N. returned home the next day. G.N. eventually learned from C.N. that D.K. had taken her to his house, raped her, and, when she cried, threatened her with his firearm if she made any more noise. He sent her to sleep with his own children and the next day gave her 500 Burundian francs (USD 0.30). He told her never to speak about the rape and threatened her and her mother if she revealed their secret. However, a week after the incident, her mother persisted in asking C.N. because she could not stand up and said she had a stomach ache. The victim’s father raised the issue with Captain D.K., who proposed an out of court settlement, which was rejected by G.N. G.N. took C.N. for a medical examination, which confirmed the rape and she reported the rape to the military prosecutor’s department. G.N. appealed to the domestic courts, which dismissed the case because of the ten-day period between the incident and reporting of it and the calmness and availability of the Captain. After seeking domestic remedies with no action taken, G.N. appealed to the Committee submitting that her daughter was the victim of a violation of articles 2(1), 12, 13 and 14, read in conjunction with article 1 and, alternatively, with article 16 of the Convention. The Committee found that the sexual abuse to which C.N. was subjected by an official of the State acting in his official capacity and the associated acts of intimidation fall within the scope of article 1 of the Convention. The Committee also determined the investigation was not impartial, effective and prompt, contrary to articles 12 and 13 of the Convention. It relied on the fact it was closed quickly and prosecutors did not seek additional evidence to pursue the case or arrest any other suspects, meaning the perpetrator of the rape has gone unpunished even though Burundi law provides that rape is punishable by life imprisonment when committed against a child under the age of 12. As the child received no redress, the Committee also found that Burundi violated its obligations under article 14 of the Convention. Finally, the Committee urged Burundi to: (1) promptly reopen an investigation; (2) provide reparation including compensation for the material and moral harm caused, restitution, rehabilitation, measures of satisfaction and a guarantee of non-repetition; (3) prevent threats/acts of violence against G.N. and C.N. for lodging the complaint; and (4) advise the Committee within 90 days of the steps taken.



A.Sh., et al. v. Switzerland Committee Against Torture (2018)


Custodial violence, International law, Sexual violence and rape

A.Sh., his wife Z.H. and their children, ethnic Chechens of the Muslim faith with Russian citizenship were residing in Switzerland and awaiting deportation to the Russian Federation. A.Sh.’s brother-in-law was a leader of a Chechen insurgent group who went into hiding. A.Sh. helped his sister and was arrested and beaten for collaborating with insurgents. He left the Russian Federation with his eldest son for Switzerland. When the police searched for him, they interrogated Z.H. about his whereabouts and then closed his shop and would not allow her to re-open it, stating it was her husband’s. The police came to her house, searched it, and took her passport, after which the commanding officer raped Z.H. She and her traumatize younger son went to live with her parents, and then left the Russian Federation illegally by car for Switzerland, where the complainants’ request for asylum was denied. The Committee considered complainants’ claim that, if they were returned to the Russian Federation, they would be exposed to torture, and Switzerland would be in violation of article 3 of the Convention. The Swiss authorities questioned complainants’ credibility and argued that the possibility they could settle in another region of the Russian Federation, other than Chechnya, meant they were not likely to be exposed to serious risk of treatment contrary to the Convention in case of return. The Committee addressed the claim that because Z.H.’s rape was not raised at the time of the first asylum procedure, the complainants lacked credibility, stating that Z.H. and her husband had been subjected to torture and suffered post-traumatic stress disorder according to the medical reports issued by Swiss psychiatrists and psychologists. Accordingly, since complete accuracy is seldom to be expected from victims of torture, the delay in reporting the sexual abuse did not undermine Z.H.’s credibility. In this connection, the Committee recalled prior its prior holdings that rape constitutes “infliction of severe pain and suffering perpetrated for a number of impermissible purposes, including interrogation, intimidation, punishment, retaliation, humiliation and discrimination based on gender”, and that in other cases it has found that “sexual abuse by the police … constitutes torture” even when it is perpetrated outside of formal detention facilities.” The Committee also rejected the Swiss authorities’ reliance on “internal flight,” citing the Russian requirement that Russian nationals must register within 90 days of arriving in a new place of residence and that this information will be accessible to Chechen authorities. By rejecting the asylum application based on the assumption of the availability of an internal flight alternative and without giving sufficient weight to whether they could be at risk of persecution, the Committee determined that Switzerland failed its obligations under article 3 of the Convention. It concluded that Switzerland could not forcibly return complainants to the Russian Federation or any country where there was a risk they could be returned to the Russian Federation. Switzerland was given 90 days to respond with the steps it planned to take.



M.P. v. Denmark Human Rights Committee (ICCPR) (2017)


Domestic and intimate partner violence, International law

M.P. originally was from Sri Lanka, and of Tamil ethnicity and the Hindu faith. She claimed her family had strong ties with the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (“LTTE”). Her father was killed and several of her brothers were subjected to violence due to the connection. To gain protection, M.P. illegally entered Switzerland where she met her former husband and father of her two children. Her husband was violent and abusive, and was convicted of domestic violence against her for which he was sentenced to three years imprisonment. He was to be expelled to Sri Lanka upon his release, but forced M.P. and the children to accompany him to Denmark and make false statements to seek asylum. M.P. was afraid of her husband, who physically assaulted her and the children and threatened to kill her and take their children away if she did no support his false version of reasons for seeking asylum. He claimed he had been detained by the military and that M.P. had been sexually abused by the Sri Lankan army. Danish authorities denied the family’s asylum request finding that M.P.’s husband had limited associations with LTTE. He was returned to Sri Lanka after he assaulted another person in Denmark. After he left, M.P. felt she could safely present the true grounds for seeking asylum in Denmark. However, her application was rejected. The Committee considered M.P.’s claim that forcibly removing her and her children would violate Denmark’s obligations under article 7 of the Covenant because she would be detained by authorities and beaten, raped and tortured due to her family’s alleged affiliation with LTTE. The Committee noted its jurisprudence that the State’s role is to review and evaluate facts and evidence to determine whether a risk exists, unless the evaluation was clearly arbitrary or amounted to a denial of justice. It then noted the findings of the Danish authorities that M.P. had not raised her family’s affiliation with LTTE before the Swiss authorities when seeking residence. Further, it noted the finding that current background material on Sri Lanka provided no basis for believing that Tamils such as M.P. with no affiliation with LTTE whose family members had not been high-profile members of LTTE would risk persecution or abuse justifying asylum merely based on ethnicity. Regarding claims by M.P. of alleged risk of harm by her former husband in Sri Lanka, the Committee noted that M.P. merely took issue with Denmark’s conclusions that she could seek protection if needed from her husband from Sri Lankan authorities. The Committee concluded that the information provided did not demonstrate that M.P. would face a real and personal risk of treatment contrary to article 7 if she were deported to Sri Lanka.



Abromchik v. Belarus Human Rights Committee (ICCPR) (2018)


Custodial violence, Gender discrimination, International law

Abromchik attended a peaceful assembly on 19 December 2010 with friends in Minsk following the announcement of presidential election results. After the event, when she and her friends were stopped by a special unit of riot police and tried to escape, they were blocked and beaten. An officer punched her on the leg with a rubber truncheon several times. She realized she had a broken leg and told the police officer. She was not taken to the hospital for several hours. She made a complaint to the prosecutor of Minsk about the unlawful actions of the police. She provided details about the incident and witnesses were questioned, but no other actions were taken to investigate the incident or to identify the police officer who had beaten her. The prosecutor’s office suspended the investigation, stating that it was impossible to find those responsible. The office resumed the investigation and then suspended it again on the same grounds. In her appeal to the Committee, Abromchik claimed that she was physically assaulted and affected mentally in violation of article 7 of the Covenant because authorities wanted her to feel helpless and to victimize her and that her age and gender should be taken into account when assessing the gravity of the ill treatment. She also noted that her complaint of ill-treatment was not investigated promptly and impartially by the authorities, contrary to article 7. The Committee found that, in the absence of any information from Belarus that it undertook to address the allegations made, due weight must be given to the allegations. On this basis, the Committee concluded that Belarus failed in its duty to adequately investigate the allegations made in violation of article 7, read in conjunction with article 2(3) of the covenant. The Committee determined that Belarus was required to provide an effective remedy, including conducting a full investigation of the ill treatment in order to prosecute the perpetrators and to punish them with appropriate sanctions, providing adequate compensation, including reimbursement of legal and medical expenses and non-pecuniary losses, and issuing a formal apology to Abromchik. Further, the Committee stated that Belarus was under an obligation to take necessary steps to prevent similar violations from occurring in the future.



D.T. v. Canada Human Rights Committee (ICCPR) (2017)


Harmful traditional practices, Honor crimes (or honour crimes), International law

D.T., a Christian born in Nigeria, married a Muslim. Her parents were against the marriage, and when she was pregnant, they threatened to kill the baby. After her husband died, she was forced to drink the water used to bathe his corpse and to sleep in the room with the corpse for three days. With help, she escaped and traveled to Canada where she gave birth to her son. Her son suffers from conditions, including a heart murmur, malformation of his meniscus and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). D.T. applied for asylum, but Canada denied her application because it found that she failed to provide materials or documentation establishing her identity and her claims. Canada dismissed her application for judicial review and ordered her to leave Canada with her seven-year-old son. To the Committee, D.T. argued that Canada’s decision violated articles 17 and 23(1) of the Covenant, that her son is also the victim of a violation of article 24(1), and that they face a risk of irreparable harm if deported to Nigeria, which has education and health care facilities inadequate to meet her son’s needs. Further, if her son remained in Canada as a citizen, it would result in family separation from his sole caregiver. The Committee concluded that given that there was no evidence that that the child had any alternative adult support network in Canada, it was foreseeable that D.T. would take her son to Nigeria. Therefore, Canada did not adequately explain why its legitimate objective in upholding its immigration policy should have outweighed the best interests of the D.T.’s child nor how that objective could justify the degree of hardship that confronted the family because of the decision to deport the mother. Acting under article 5(4) of the Optional Protocol, the Committee found the removal resulted in arbitrary interference with the right to family life in breach of article 17(1) and article 23(1) of the covenant with respect to D.T. and her son, and that it violated article 24 due to a failure to provide her son with the necessary measures of protection owed to him by Canada. Canada was ordered to provide D.T. with an effective re-evaluation of her claims, based on an assessment of the best interests of the child, including his health and educational needs, and to provide her with adequate compensation. The Committee stated that Canada also is under an obligation to avoid similar violations in the future and to publish the Views and have them widely disseminated in Canada in French and English.



R.R. v. Denmark Human Rights Committee (ICCPR) (2017)


Domestic and intimate partner violence, International law

R.R., an Iranian national, had left Iran for Italy with her husband and children due to her husband’s activities for the Kurdish Komeleh party. While in Italy, they lived in an asylum center and then were provided with a dwelling. They had difficulty paying rent as they could not find steady employment and her husband became addicted to narcotics. Her husband subjected her and the children to domestic violence and she was forced into prostitution by her husband. She left her husband and took her children. She was diagnosed with bipolar disorder, depression, and cervical cancer, and received help from friends to pay for surgery. Her youngest son suffered from heart disease. She and her children left Italy and sought asylum in Denmark. Danish authorities rejected her asylum application, finding that Italy should serve as her first country of asylum. R.R. claimed that by forcibly returning her and her two children to Italy, Denmark would violate its rights under article 7 of the Covenant. She stated that her family unit were particularly vulnerable as she was a single mother, she and her son required medical attention, and they risked facing inhuman and degrading treatment upon return to Italy, including a risk of homelessness and destitution, with limited access to the necessary medical care. The Committee, acting under article 5(4) of the Optional Protocol, decided that the deportation of R.R. and her two children to Italy without proper assurances from Italy that it would renew her residence permit and issue permits for her children and that it would receive her family in conditions appropriate for her children’s age and the family’s vulnerable status to enable them to remain in Italy, would violate their rights under article 7 of the Covenant. The Committee required Denmark to review her claim in consideration of its obligations under the Covenant and the need to obtain proper assurances from Italy. While considering her request for asylum, the Committee requested that Denmark not deport her and her children.



Hashi v. Denmark Human Rights Committee (ICCPR) (2017)


Divorce and dissolution of marriage, Domestic and intimate partner violence, Gender discrimination, Gender violence in conflict, International law

Hibaq Said Hashi left Somalia for fear of persecution by Al-Shabaab. She was divorced from one man and married to a second man, but her former husband claimed they were not divorced and she was having sexual relations with another man, which caused Al-Shabaab to call for her to be stoned. Her father helped her leave Somalia and then he was killed, and her current husband was sentenced to death. She traveled to Italy by boat, was registered and determined she was pregnant, but she faced poor conditions in Italy so she left for Sweden to have her baby. When she learned Swedish authorities planned to send her back to Italy, she and her son moved to Denmark where she applied for asylum. She claimed that if she returned to Somalia she would be persecuted and if she returned to Italy she would face harsh living conditions and would not be able to provide for her son’s basic needs. She was ordered to leave Denmark to return to Italy, which Denmark considered her first country of asylum. Upon appeal, the Committee, acting under article 5(4) of the Optional Protocol, decided that the removal of Hibaq Said Hashi and her son to Italy without any assurances from Italy that it would receive her and her son in conditions suitable for her child’s age and family’s vulnerable status would violate their rights under article 7 of the Covenant. The Committee required Denmark to review her claim in consideration of its obligations under the Covenant and the need to obtain effective assurances from Italy. While considering her request for asylum, the Committee requested that Denmark not deport her and her son.



C. v. Australia Human Rights Committee (ICCPR) (2018)


Divorce and dissolution of marriage, International law, LGBTIQ

C. was a citizen of Australia and the United Kingdom who lived with A. as a couple in the State of Victoria and then Queensland. They agreed to have a baby and that C. would be the birth mother. They traveled to Canada and got married and then separated shortly after the marriage. C. is the sole caregiver of the baby and no longer knows of the whereabouts of A. C. wanted to formally dissolve her Canadian legal marriage so that she could remarry or enter a civil partnership in the future. She also wanted to ensure she was not held responsible for A.’s debts. Finally, when traveling abroad, she did not want A. to be deemed her legal spouse in certain countries where the marriage might be recognized and A deemed next of kin. In Queensland, in order to obtain a file a divorce application to dissolve a marriage, a marital relationship must be legally recognized as a marriage. Section 5(1) of the Marriage Act of 1961, which provided the relevant definition of marriage, define this term to mean “the union of a man and a woman to the exclusion of all others, voluntarily entered into for life.” Further, Section 88EA of the Act provided that, “a union solemnized in a foreign country between: (a) a man and another man, or 9b) a woman and another woman, must not be recognized as a marriage in Australia.” C. did not file for divorce in Australia because of the laws, nor did she apply in Canada or the United Kingdom because both had residency requirements for divorce. C. filed her claim with the Committee claiming that the denial under Australian law of access to divorce proceedings for same-sex couples who have validly married abroad and the consequential denial of court-based relief in the form of a court order amounts to discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation, contrary to article 1491), ready together with article 291) (equal access to courts and tribunals), and article 26 (equality before the law) of the Covenant. The Committee determined that C. was precluded from accessing divorce proceedings in Australia because her same-sex marriage was not recognized under sections 5(1) and 88EA of the Marriage Act of Australia, whereas couples in specific opposite-sex marriages not recognized in Australia, such as polygamous couples, do have access to divorce. This was found to constitute differential treatment. Australia stated they made a reasonable exception for polygamous marriages to enable parties to such marriages access to the assistance, relief and help provided by the family law courts in relation to (but not limited to) children’s matters, property matters, maintenance matters or divorce. The Committee determined that Australia did not explain why this stated reason does not apply equally to unrecognized foreign same-sex marriages. In the absence of more convincing explanations from Australia, the Committee found that the differentiation of treatment based on sexual orientation to which C. was subjected regarding access to divorce proceedings was not based on reasonable and objective criteria and therefore constitutes discrimination under article 26 of the Covenant. Under article 2(3) of the Covenant, the Committee stated that Australia was under an obligation to provide C. with an effective remedy by providing full reparation for the discrimination suffered through lack of access to divorce proceedings. Australia also was obligated to take steps to prevent similar violations in the future and to review its laws in accordance with the Committee’s views, and to provide the Committee information about the measures taken to give effect to the Committee’s views within 180 days.



Sharma, et al. v. Nepal Human Rights Committee (ICCPR) (2018)


Gender-based violence in general, International law, Sexual violence and rape

The Government of Nepal declared a state of emergency in response to a rebellion by the Maoist party and granted powers to the Royal Nepal Army to arrest individuals on suspicion of involvement in terrorist activities through and to keep them in detention for up to 90 days without charge. The first author, Sarita Devi Sharma, is the sister of Himal Sharma, Secretary-General of a Maoist-affiliated political party in Nepal. Ms. Sharma and her friend B.M. were followed and asked about Ms. Sharma’s brother, then they were handcuffed, placed in a van and taken to Army barracks. She was detained and held from October 2003 through 30 June 2005. Once her husband, the second author, became aware of her disappearance, he submitted an application to the National Human Rights Commission denouncing her disappearance and submitted a writ petition to the Supreme Court of Nepal demanding an order of habeas corpus, which the court rejected, claiming lack of evidence proving her illegal detention. He also informed Amnesty International about her disappearance, but they never received a reply from the Government when they inquired about her. During the first four-five months, she was routinely interrogated, beaten, held underwater for long periods of time and threatened with rape. After that, she suffered ill health and was taken to a hospital. In the hospital, she sent a letter secretly to her husband who, after several months of not hearing any further information, shared it with members of All Nepal National Independent Student Union Revolutionary who included information about her condition in a press release. As a result, Ms. Sharma was interrogated harshly and beaten. Ms. Sharma was then moved to a small, dark room and kept in isolation. Her husband filed a new petition for habeas corpus with the Supreme Court, which ordered her release. The Committee determined that Nepal produced no evidence to show that, while Ms. Sharma was held in incommunicado detention, it met its obligations to protect her life, and that this failure resulted in a violation of article 6(1) of the Covenant. In addition, the Committee found that the enforced disappearance and incommunicado detention of Ms. Sharma, and the acts of torture and conditions to which she was exposed constituted violations of article 7 of the Covenant. Further, the Committee concluded that the enforced disappearance and arbitrary detention of Ms. Sharma amounted to a violation of article 9 (1-4) of the Covenant. The enforced disappearance deprived her of the protection of the law and her right to recognition as a person before the law in violation of article 16 of the Covenant. The anguish and distress suffered by Ms. Sharma’s husband and son, the third author, due to her enforced disappearance also were found to constitute a violation of article 7 of the Covenant. The Committee determined that neither Ms. Sharma did not receive an adequate remedy (246,000 Nepalese rupees), in violation of article 2 (3), in conjunction with articles 6, 7, 9 (1-4) and 16, and her husband and son received no interim relief, which constituted a violation of article 2 (3), read in conjunction with article 7 of the Covenant. Moreover, the Committee stated that Nepal was obligated to provide an effective remedy. This remedy should include: (1) conducting a thorough and effective investigation into the facts surrounding the detention and the treatment suffered in detention; (2) prosecuting those responsible for the violations committed and making the results public; (3) providing detailed information about the results of the investigation to Ms. Sharma and her family; (4) ensuring that any necessary and adequate psychological rehabilitation and medical treatment is provided; and (5) providing adequate compensation and appropriate measures of satisfaction for the violations suffered. Further, in order to prevent the occurrence of similar violations in the future, the Committee stated that Nepal should ensure that its legislation: (1) criminalizes torture and enforced disappearance and provides for appropriate sanctions and remedies; (2) guarantees that such cases give rise to a prompt, impartial and effective investigation; (3) allows for the criminal prosecution of those found responsible for such crimes; and (4) amends the 35-day statutory limit for claiming compensation for torture, in accordance with international standards.



O.G. v. Russian Federation CEDAW Committee (2017)


Domestic and intimate partner violence, International law

O.G. was in a civil partnership with K. who used drugs and alcohol and had a gambling addiction. After O.G. left him, he sent her harassing texts, attempted to visit her, and when she refused to let him in her building, he hit her. She reported the events to a Crisis Center for Women. K. was sentenced to four months of labor which was suspended to a six-month probation and ordered to pay $50. After his release, he continued to send texts to O.G. threatening to kill her. She filed seven criminal complaints with the police, who took no action claiming there was nothing they could do because K. would not come to the police station and he was not acting on his threats. O.G. filed a complaint with CEDAW alleging that the Russian Federation failed to fully implement the Convention by not introducing legislation on domestic violence, and that the authorities had violated her rights under the Convention by not responding adequately to her claims or implementing protective orders to ensure her safety, not providing any effective remedy or psychological support, not conducting meaningful investigation, and allowing prosecution to be time barred due to a two-year statute of limitation. The Committee decided in O.G.’s favor, rejecting the Russian authority’s argument that O.G.’s claim to be a domestic violence victim was unsubstantiated because he was not a member of her family at the time of the alleged violence, finding that there is no statutory time limit on how long after the end of a relationship a partner can claim that violence falls within this definition. The Committee determined that Russia had not adopted comprehensive legislation to prevent and address violence against women, and noted recent amendments to national legislation that decriminalized battery under which many domestic violence cases are prosecuted due to the absence of a definition of “domestic violence.” This failure to amend legislation relating to domestic violence directly affected O.G.’s access to remedies and protection. The Committee determined Russia violated O.G.’s rights under articles 1, 2 (b)-(g), 3 and 5 (a) of the Convention. It recommended that Russia provide financial compensation to O.G., adopt comprehensive legislation to prevent and address violence against women, including domestic violence, reinstate criminal prosecution of domestic violence, introduce a protocol for handling domestic violence complaints at the police station level to ensure adequate protection, renounce private prosecution in domestic violence cases, ratify the Istanbul Convention, provide mandatory training for judges, lawyers and law enforcement personnel on the Convention and related documents, investigate allegations of gender-based violence against women promptly and provide safe and prompt access to justice, provide rehabilitation programs to offenders, and develop and implement effective measures with relevant stakeholders such as women’s organizations, to address stereotypes and practices that condone or promote domestic violence. A written response and report on actions taken was due to the Committee within six months. (Available in English, Russian, Arabic, Chinese, French, Spanish.)



S.F.A. v. Denmark CEDAW Committee (2018)


Abortion and reproductive health rights, Female genital mutilation or female genital cutting, Forced and early marriage

S.F.A., a Somali national, applied for asylum in Denmark for herself and her son born in 2013. She was subjected to female genital mutilation as a child and her father wanted to marry her forcibly to an older man. She had a relationship against her family’s wishes with H., became pregnant and had an abortion. Her father learned about the abortion and her brothers threatened to hand her over to Al-Shabaab. She left Somalia and ended up in Italy. H. traveled to Italy, they got married and she became pregnant and H. died. S.F.A. and her baby traveled to Denmark without documents and she applied for asylum. Denmark rejected her asylum application and dismissed her claim. She filed a complaint with CEDAW claiming that, if she and her son were deported to Somalia she would be personally exposed to serious forms of gender-based violence, as defined under articles 2, 12, 15 and 16 of the Convention. The Committee noted that the Danish authorities found that S.F.A.’s account lacked credibility due to factual inconsistencies and lack of substantiation and that they considered the general situation in Somalia. The Committee rejected her claim that the fact she is a single woman constitutes a supplementary risk factor in Somalia, finding that she has several close relatives in Somalia. Based on the record, the Commission deemed the communication inadmissible under article 4(2)(c) of the Optional Protocol, finding that it was not able to conclude that the Danish authorities failed to give sufficient consideration to the application or that consideration of her case suffered from any procedural defect.



A.S. v. Denmark CEDAW Committee (2018)


International law, LGBTIQ

A.S., a Uganda national, applied for asylum in Denmark. She claimed she was wanted in Uganda and at risk of being killed there because she was a lesbian. She was forced to marry a man and have three children, and when he died, she made a living working in a bar frequented by lesbians. Three men made advances to her in the bar, she turned them down, and they became aggressive. Her home was ransacked and burned, her belongings were stolen, and the police looked for her, including at her mother’s house. She left Rwanda traveling with a visa obtained in Kampala. Danish authorities rejected the asylum application, noting the visa contained the wrong name. A.S. filed a complaint with CEDAW claiming that, deportation to Uganda would violate her rights under articles 1-3 of the Convention because her life would be in danger at the hands of the police and ordinary people due to her sexual orientation. She claimed that her case was not properly investigated by the Refugee Appeals Board. The Committee noted that the Danish authorities found A.S.’ account lacked credibility due to factual inconsistencies and lack of support related to her claim to be a lesbian and her account of the bar incident. The Committee also noted that the authorities considered the situation of gay people in Uganda, and found that, notwithstanding the fact homosexuality is prohibited under the Penal Code, the ban has not been enforced and gay people are not targeted. The Committee deemed the communication inadmissible under article 4 (2)(c) concluding that A.S. failed to support that the lack of reference to the Convention in the asylum decision or the refusal to call a witness stemmed from any gender-based discrimination. It also did not find any procedural defect or arbitrariness in the decision-making process or any breach of the Convention as a result of the initial error related to A.S.’ name.



Корнейкова та Корнейков проти України (Korneykova and Korneykov v. Ukraine) European Court of Human Rights (Європейський суд з прав людини) (2016)


Abortion and reproductive health rights, Custodial violence, International law

The first applicant, who was in the fifth month of pregnancy, was detained by the police on suspicion of robbery. The national court ordered her pre-trial detention as a preventive measure pending trial. During her detention, the applicant gave birth to her son, the second applicant. Later, the woman appealed to the European Court of Human Rights (“ECtHR”) to obtain just satisfaction, as she argued that her right under Article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights (prohibition of torture) was violated during detention. The applicant alleged that she had been continuously shackled to her hospital bed or to a gynecological examination chair. In addition, the woman claimed that the detention conditions were inhuman (due to absence of hot water and bed for child, irregular supply of cold water, etc.). She also complained about her placement in a metal cage during court hearings. In view of the above facts, the Court concluded that the unjustified shackling of the first applicant (during and after childbirth, when she was particularly sensitive) can be qualified as inhuman and degrading treatment. Also, the Court drew attention to (i) the woman's physical and psychological suffering, which was caused by the lack of normal nutrition, (ii) improper organization of sanitary and hygiene arrangements, and (iii) the applicant's placement in a metal cage, which is incompatible with the standards of civilized behavior that are the hallmark of a democratic society. Thus, the domestic authorities failed to comply with their obligations under Article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights. The ECtHR, deciding in equity, awarded both applicants €22,000. This case is important because it identifies the shortcomings of places of detention within a criminal justice system, which neglects the needs of female prisoners with children and during the pregnancy.

Першу заявницю, яка перебувала на п'ятому місяці вагітності, було затримано міліцією за підозрою у вчиненні розбою. Національний суд обрав заявниці запобіжний захід у вигляді тримання під вартою. Під час перебування під вартою заявниця народила сина, другого заявника. Пізніше жінка звернулася до Європейського суду з прав людини (“ЄСПЛ”) для отримання справедливої сатисфакції, оскільки вона стверджувала, що її право, гарантоване статтею 3 Конвенції про захист прав людини та основоположних свобод (заборона катування) було порушено під час тримання під вартою. Заявниця стверджувала, що вона весь час була прикута наручниками до лікарняного ліжка або до гінекологічного крісла. Крім того, жінка стверджувала, що умови утримання були нелюдськими (через відсутність гарячої води та ліжка для дитини, нерегулярного постачання холодної води тощо). Також вона скаржилась на те, що під час судових засідань її поміщали до металевої клітки. З огляду на вищенаведені факти, Суд дійшов висновку, що невиправдане застосування наручників до першої заявниці (під час і після пологів, коли вона була особливо чутливою) можна кваліфікувати як нелюдське чи таке, що принижує гідність, поводження. Також Суд звернув увагу на (i) фізичні та психологічні страждання жінки, які були спричинені відсутністю нормального харчування, (ii) неналежну організацію санітарних та гігієнічних заходів, а також (iii) поміщення заявниці в металеву клітку, що несумісне зі стандартами цивілізованої поведінки, яка є ознакою демократичного суспільства. Таким чином, національні органи влади не виконали своїх зобов’язань за статтею 3 Конвенції про захист прав людини та основоположних свобод. ЄСПЛ, вирішуючи справу на засадах справедливості, присудив обом заявникам 22 000 євро. Ця справа важлива, оскільки вона визначає недоліки місць ув’язнення в системі кримінального правосуддя, яка нехтує потребами ув’язнених жінок з дітьми та під час вагітності.



Гарнага проти України (Garnaga v. Ukraine) European Court of Human Rights (Європейський суд з прав людини) (2013)


Gender discrimination, International law

The applicant intended to change her patronymic (this term means a part of a personal name was traditionally derived from the name of the father of the person concerned) to disassociate herself from her biological father and associate herself more closely with her stepfather and half-brother. Despite the fact that the woman successfully changed her surname to the surname of her stepfather, she was not allowed to change her patronymic. The authorities' main argument was that new legislation prohibited such a change, which the applicant argued was an illegal and unjustified restriction of her rights. She appealed the decision to the local court, which concluded that the state authorities acted in accordance with the law, after which a change of a patronymic was only legally possible when the father of the person concerned had previously changed his forename. The appellate court and the Higher Administrative Court upheld the decision of the first-instance court. The woman appealed to the European Court of Human Rights (“ECtHR”), alleging that there was a violation of her right to private and family life under Article 8 of the Convention on Human Rights. The ECtHR drew attention to the fact that the Ukrainian legislation regulating change of a forename or surname was flexible, but did not provide sufficient reasons for the restrictions on changing the patronymic. Thus, the ECtHR held that authorities failed to comply with their obligations under Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights by denying her right to change the patronymic, which was an important aspect of woman`s private and family life. In the most recent version of the Civil Code, the right to change one`s patronymic is established without restriction.

Заявниця мала намір змінити своє по батькові (цей термін означає частину особистого імені, що традиційно походить від імені батька відповідної особи), щоб відмежуватися від свого біологічного батька та більш тісно пов’язати себе із вітчимом та неповнорідним братом. Незважаючи на те, що заявниця успішно змінила своє прізвище на прізвище свого вітчима, їй не дозволили змінити по батькові. Основним аргументом уповноважених осіб було те, що нове законодавство забороняло таку зміну, що, на думку заявниці, було незаконним та необґрунтованим обмеженням її права. Жінка оскаржила відмову до місцевого суду, який дійшов висновку, що державні органи діяли у відповідності до закону, який визначав, що зміна по батькові можлива тільки у тому випадку, коли батько такої особи попередньо змінив своє ім’я. Суди апеляційної інстанції та Вищий адміністративний суд залишили рішення суду першої інстанції без змін. Жінка звернулася до Європейського суду з прав людини (“ЄСПЛ”), стверджуючи, що мало місце порушення її права на приватне та сімейне життя відповідно до статті 8 Конвенції з прав людини. ЄСПЛ звернув увагу на те, що українське законодавство, яке регулювало зміну імені чи прізвища було гнучким, але не містило достатніх підстав для обмежень щодо зміни по батькові. Таким чином, ЄСПЛ постановив, що органи влади не виконали своїх зобов’язань за статтею 8 Європейської конвенції з прав людини, відмовивши їй у праві змінити по батькові, яке було важливим аспектом приватного та сімейного життя жінки. В останній редакції Цивільного кодексу право на зміну по батькові встановлено без обмежень.



Y. v. Slovenia European Court of Human Rights (2015)


International law, Sexual violence and rape, Statutory rape or defilement

Applicant is a citizen of Ukraine who came to Slovenia as a teenager with her family. Applicant alleged that when she was 14 a family friend repeatedly sexually assaulted her. The police investigated and an expert in gynecology examined the applicant. After complaints and a letter from the State Prosecutor’s Office to the local police a criminal complaint was issued. The ensuing investigation and trial extended over a period of eight years. During that time the defendant was allowed to repeatedly cross examine the applicant. Moreover, a lawyer with whom the applicant had shared confidential information about the case was allowed to represent the defendant. The defendant was acquitted, the applicant was referred to civil court for damages, and the applicant received a settlement from the government for the undue delays in the proceedings. The Court found that Slovenia violated the European Convention of Human Rights in two ways. Slovenia violated Article 3 when it failed to promptly investigate and prosecute the complaint of sexual abuse. Furthermore, Slovenia violated Article 8 because it failed to sufficiently protect the applicant’s personal integrity and privacy in the proceedings.



Case of W. v. Slovenia European Court of Human Rights (2014)


International law, Sexual violence and rape

In 1990 at age 18, W. was raped by a group of seven men. Three other men aided and abetted the rape. Seven months later, the court acquitted the men of all charges, finding that the victim had not “seriously resisted sexual intercourse.” The Public Prosecutor appealed the judgement and in 1991, a year after the assault, the appellate court overturned the acquittal. The Slovenian authorities attempted to locate the perpetrators, but two defendants had emigrated to Austria and could not be found. Between 1995 and 2001, the victim wrote eight letters to the court urging the proceedings to continue and five hearings were adjourned for failure of some of the defendants to appear. Various excuses, such as frequent changes in the presiding judges, were offered to the victim as excuses for the stalled proceedings. Finally, in May 2001, the authorities issued an international arrest warrant for the defendants located abroad. In June 2002, six defendants were found guilty of rape and aggravated rape. However, due to the passage of time, they were only sentenced to eight months to one year of prison. The last defendant was extradited in 2004, convicted of aiding and abetting the rape, and sentenced to eight months in prison. The victim received €5,000 from the Slovenian government in recognition of delay in prosecuting the defendants; however, the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) found that this amount (while the statutory maximum in Slovenia) was insufficient redress. The ECtHR noted that Slovenian authorities failed to proceed with the case in a diligent manner and that the defendants received prison sentences of less than the minimum sentences prescribed by law. Thus, the domestic authorities failed to comply with their obligations under Article 3 of the European Convention of Human Rights. The ECHR, deciding in equity, awarded the victim €15,000 in addition to the €5,000 she received from the domestic authorities.



Case of Bălşan v. Romania European Court of Human Rights (2017)


Divorce and dissolution of marriage, Domestic and intimate partner violence, International law

Applicant is a Romanian citizen who alleged that her husband had been violent towards her and their children on numerous occasions. The assaults intensified when the applicant initiated divorce proceedings against her husband. The applicant’s husband assaulted and threatened her on multiple occasions, for which she required and obtained medical treatment. She then used her medical records as proof when she lodged formal complaints against her husband at the prosecutor’s office. She told prosecutors of the incidences of violence and the fact that her husband repeatedly locked her out of their shared residence. The police did not pursue criminal charges and only imposed an administrative fine, holding that the applicant had provoked the disputes. A similar pattern of abuse, medical attention, and contact with the authorities occurred over a period of months. The applicant brought the case to the European Court of Human Rights alleging that the State “had failed to protect her from domestic violence and to hold the perpetrator accountable.” The Court found that there were violations of Article 3 and Article 14 of the European Convention on Human Rights, which forbid torture and discrimination, respectively. The Court found that the authorities were aware of the violence against the applicant, and thus they had an obligation to act on the complaints. The applicant exhausted domestic avenues, but without success. The state’s responses did not comply with international standards about required state action to violence against women and domestic violence. (Available in English, Romanian, and Croatian. English version is official.)



Sawhoyamaxa Indigenous Community v. Paraguay Inter-American Court of Human Rights (2006)


Abortion and reproductive health rights, Gender discrimination, International law, Property and inheritance rights

This case involved issues involving the exposure of vulnerable members of indigenous communities, particularly children, pregnant women, and the elderly. A petition was filed against Paraguay on behalf of the Sawhoyamaxa Indigenous Community, alleging violations of, among other things, the right to fair trial and judicial protection, the right to property and the right to life. The petition noted that these violations placed children, pregnant women and the elderly in particularly vulnerable situations. The Court found Paraguay to be in violation of Articles 1(1), 2, 3, 4(1), 8, 19, 21 and 25 of the American Convention on Human Rights. The Court ordered Paraguay to formally and physically convey to the Sawhoyamaxa their traditional lands, to establish a community development fund, to pay non-pecuniary damages, to provide the Sawhoyamaxa with basic necessities until their lands were restored, to provide the Sawhoyamaxa with the necessary tools for communication to access health authorities, and to domestically enact legislation creating a mechanism for indigenous communities to reclaim their traditional lands.



Perozo et al. v. Venezuela Inter-American Court of Human Rights (2009)


Custodial violence, International law, Sexual harassment

This case was brought against Venezuela under allegations of harassment and physical and verbal assault toward journalists, including some female journalists, by state actors over a period of four years. While the Court found Venezuela to be in violation of the right to speak freely, to receive and impart information, and to humane treatment (violations of Articles 1(1), 5(1) and 13(1) of the American Convention on Human Rights), the Court also found there was insufficient evidence to establish violations of Articles 13(3), 21 and 24 of the American Convention on Human Rights. The Court further noted that it would not analyze the alleged actions under Articles 1, 2 and 7(b) of the Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment and Eradication of Violence against Women.



Maria da Penha Fernandes v. Brazil Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (2000)


Domestic and intimate partner violence, International law

The applicant brought this case to the Inter-American Commission (“IACHR”), arguing that Brazil effectively condoned violence against women through ineffective judicial and prosecutorial action. The applicant’s husband shot her in the back while she was sleeping. She survived, but was paralyzed from the waist down. Her husband received a sentence of two years in prison after 19 years of trial. The IACHR found that the delays and the lack of protections in Brazil for domestic violence survivors amounted to violations of da Penha's human right to live free from violence and to access justice. Also, the IACHR issued determinations to Brazil requiring that the government continue and intensify the reform process to avoid state tolerance and discriminatory treatment with respect to domestic violence against women in Brazil. In response to this decision, Brazil enacted the Maria da Penha Act in 2006.

A Peticionária levou o caso à Comissão Interamericana de Direitos Humanos (CIDH), sob o argumento de que o Brasil foi conivente com a violência doméstica por ela sofrida, na medida não lhe foi prestado atendimento jurisdicional necessário e efetivo. O marido da Peticionária atirou em suas costas enquanto ela dormia, bem como tentou eletrocutá-la no banho. Em razão dos atendados do marido, a Peticionária ficou tetraplégica. Após 19 anos de julgamento do caso, o agressor cumpriu apenas 02 anos de sua pena na prisão. Em virtude disso, a CIDH entendeu que a demora na punição do agressor bem como a falta de proteção às mulheres vítimas de violência doméstica violou os direitos humanos da Peticionária, especialmente o direito de viver livre de violência e o seu direito de acesso à justiça. Ademais, a CIDH determinou que o governo brasileiro continuasse a intensificasse o processo de reforma do judiciário, a fim de evitar a intolerância e o tratamento discriminatório das vítimas de violência doméstica no país.



J. v. Peru, Report No. 76/11, Case 11,769A Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (2011)


Custodial violence

In April 1992, the Petitioner was arrested during a raid by DINCOTE, the counter-terrorism branch of the Peruvian police. The police believed that the Petitioner was a member of the Sendero Luminoso, a communist militant group in Peru. During the raid, the Petitioner was blindfolded, beaten and raped by some of the police officers. When she protested the sexual violence, the officers beat and kicked her. After the raid, the officers took the Petitioner to a DINCOTE facility, where she was detained for more than a year in cells infested with roaches and rats. While detained, DINCOTE officers deprived the Petitioner of access to her attorney, forced her to urinate in a can in the presence of two male officers, and doused her with cold water if she resisted their orders. The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (the “IACHR”) found that the Peru violated the Petitioner’s rights by failing to conduct a serious investigation of her claims, even though her claims “fit a pattern known to have existed at that time” and involved violence (¶ 207). According to the IACHR, Peru had a duty to investigate the Petitioner's claims of rape, including ordering medical tests and examinations, to either corroborate or disprove her claims. The IACHR concluded that Peru, inter alia, violated the rights recognized in articles 5(1), 5(2) and 11 of the American Convention on Human Rights (the “American Convention”), as well as Article 1 and 6 of the Inter-American Convention to Prevent and Punish Torture. Noting its well-established precedent that “rape committed by members of the security forces of a state against the civilian population constitutes, in any situation, a serious violation of the human rights protected by Articles 5 and 11 of the American Convention,” the IACHR established that rape is particularly reprehensible when it perpetrated by a state agent against a detainee, because of the victim’s vulnerability and the agent’s abuse of power (¶ 188). In addition, noting that various reports had shown a pattern of rape and sexual abuse against women by members of Peru’s security forces, the IACHR found that such sexual violence was part of a “broader context of discrimination against women” (¶ 65).