Women and Justice: Search

Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Anayasası (Constitution of the Republic of Turkey) Europe, Turkey - Legislation - (1995)

Gender discrimination

Article 10 of the Constitution stipulates the principle of equality before the law. Accordingly, every person is equal before the law without any distinction based on sex. among other grounds. The paragraph added in 2004 explicitly provides that men and women have equal rights. A sentence added in 2010 provides that the State has the obligation to ensure that this equality exists in practice and measures taken for this purpose shall not be interpreted as a violation of the principle of equality. It is also noted that all state organs and administrative authorities are under the obligation to act in accordance with the principle of equality before the law in all of their actions. An English translation from the Constitute Project is available here: https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Turkey_2017



Y.Y. v. Turkey Europe, Turkey - International Case Law - European Court of Human Rights (2015)

Abortion and reproductive health rights, Gender discrimination, International law, LGBTIQ

The applicant, a transgender man who was registered in the civil registry records as “female,” had applied to a Turkish Court for gender reassignment authorization in 2005. The first instance court and the appeal courts rejected his application on the grounds of not being permanently unable to procreate, and therefore not satisfying one of the requirements of Article 40 of the Turkish Civil Code. In 2008, the applicant applied to the European Court of Human Rights alleging that his right to respect for his private life was violated. Upon this application has been notified to the government of Turkey, the applicant filed a new application to a Turkish Court and this time, he was authorized to undergo gender reassignment surgery. The European Court of Human Rights ruled that the initial refusal of the domestic courts to grant authorization for gender reassignment surgery on the grounds that the requirement that he be unable to procreate violated his right to respect to his private life as such interference with his right was not necessary in a democratic society. This ruling of the European Court of Human Rights has been seen as a factor in the Constitutional Court of Turkey’s annulment of the requirement of permanent inability to procreate in Decision No. 2017/165. The Turkish Ministry of Justice’s translation is available to download here: https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/app/conversion/pdf/?library=ECHR&id=001-155902&filename=CASE%20OF%20Y.Y.%20v.%20TURKEY%20-%20%5BTurkish%20Translation%5D%20by%20the%20Turkish%20Ministry%20of%20Justice.pdf



Hülya Ebru Demirel ve Türkiye Europe, Turkey - International Case Law - European Court of Human Rights (2018)

Employment discrimination, Gender discrimination, International law

The applicant, although at first appointed as a security officer at a State-run electricity company, was informed that she could not be appointed to this post because the post required “being a man” and “having completed military service.” She began working as a security officer after the first instance court ordered stay. Nonetheless, her contract of employment was terminated almost after two years after she lost the case in the appeal. Upon exhausting all domestic remedies, she applied to the European Court of Human Rights in 2008. The Court reiterated its reasoning in Emel Boyraz v. Turkey and held that the nature of the duties of the post such as work on night shifts and using firearms did not justified the differential treatment between men and women. Consequently, the Court ruled that Article 14 of the European Convention of Human Rights – prohibition of discrimination – has been violation in conjunction with the right to private life – Article 8 of the Convention. The unofficial Turkish translation is available here: https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng/?i=001-200565



N.Ç. v. Turkey Europe, Turkey - International Case Law - European Court of Human Rights (2021)

Statutory rape or defilement, Trafficking in persons

The applicant was forced to prostitution by two women when she was 12. She later filed a criminal complaint against the two women and the men who raped her. During the course of the proceedings, the first instance phase of which lasted over seven years, she was attacked or threatened by the relatives of some of the defendants; her request for the transfer of the trial to another place for safety reasons had been denied; she had not been provided any psychological assistance; she had been made to recount the sexual acts in detail on many occasions; she had been subjected to repetitive medical examinations; and the court somehow considered that the sexual acts were not committed by use of threat, force, or violence (which would have resulted in longer prison sentences) and that she “consented” to the acts or she was not “totally unwilling.” The European Court of Human Rights decided that the State had failed to ensure effective application of its criminal laws and thereby failed to fulfill its positive obligations under Article 3 (prohibition of torture and inhuman or degrading treatment) and Article 8 (respect for private life) of the European Convention on Human Rights. This case is important as the Court emphasized the importance of the prevention of the secondary victimization of the victims of sexual offenses and also the diligence required from State parties on the protection of a child who had been the victim of sexual exploitation and abuse. The decision is available in French. An unofficial Turkish translation is available here: https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-210354.



Application by Court of First Instance to Annul Second Paragraph of Article 40 of the Turkish Civil Code Europe, Turkey - Domestic Case Law - Constitutional Court of Turkey (2017)

Gender discrimination, LGBTIQ

The application was made by the First Instance Court handling a case where a transgender man requested to change his gender assignment in the civil registry from “female” to “male.” The First Instance Court applied to the Constitutional Court for the annulment of the second paragraph of Article 40 of the Turkish Civil Code stipulating that amendments to be made in the civil registry to reflect the gender identity of the person whose gender assignment at birth is different are only allowed upon verification via an official health council report that such person has undergone a gender reassignment surgery. The First Instance Court argued that requiring transgender persons to undergo gender reassignment surgery in order for their gender identity to be recognized in the legal order (for example for them to be able have identity cards reflecting their own gender and not their assigned gender at birth) is unconstitutional. However, the Constitutional Court stated that this is a constitutional restriction on the rights of persons to protection and development of their corporeal and spiritual existence (Article 17 of the Constitution) and privacy of private life (Article 20 of the Constitution). The Court reasoned that it was legitimate for the state to prohibit amendments of a person’s assigned gender in the civil registry records without gender reassignment surgery. It was stated that allowing otherwise would create (i) a difference between the biological sex of a person and the gender of such person in civil registry records and (ii) therefore potential confusions with regards to the application of the legal rules providing special measures for women. According to the Court, preventing such confusions and any possible “misrepresentations” of gender in order to benefit from such rules was a legitimate ground for the state to have this provision. As a result, the provision was not annulled.



Turkish Civil Code: Volume I, Section I, Chapter II: Personal Status Registry Europe, Turkey - Legislation - (2001)

Gender discrimination, LGBTIQ

Under Article 40 of the Turkish Civil Code, persons wanting to change their gender assignments should apply to the court for authorization. For the court to grant authorization, the following requirements must be met: (i) persons requesting such change must be over the age of 18 and should not be married and (ii) there must be an official health council report from an education and research hospital that they are transgender and gender reassignment is necessary for the preservation of their mental health. Upon verification via an official health council report that such person has undergone a gender reassignment surgery following the authorization of the court, the court will also decide that the necessary amendments be made in the civil registry to reflect the gender identity of the person who has undergone gender reassignment surgery in civil records. Until 2017, Article 40 also required that the person be unable to procreate, but the Constitutional Court found that requirement unconstitutional and struck it down in Decision No. 2017/165.



Application by Court of First Instance to Annul a Rule Provided under Article 40 of the Turkish Civil Code (Decision No. 2017/165) Europe, Turkey - Domestic Case Law - Constitutional Court of Turkey (2017)

Abortion and reproductive health rights, Gender discrimination, LGBTIQ

Article 40 of the Turkish Civil Code, at the time of this application, required the courts to grant authorization to persons wishing to change their gender assignments and have gender reassignment surgery that (i) persons requesting such change be over the age of 18 and unmarried and (ii) there be an official health council report from an education and research hospital certifying that (a) they are transgender, (b) gender reassignment is necessary for the preservation of their mental health, and (c) they are permanently unable to procreate. The application was made by the First Instance Court handling a case where a transgender man requested to change his gender assignment in the civil registry from “female” to “male.” The First Instance Court applied to the Constitutional Court for the annulment of the rule providing for the requirement of being “permanently unable to procreate.” The Constitutional Court stated that the requirement of certifying permanent inability to procreate forces transgender persons who have the ability to procreate to undergo a separate surgery. Thus, the Constitutional Court found that this requirement could not be considered as a proportionate interference with the rights of persons to protection and development of their corporeal and spiritual existence (Article 17 of the Constitution) and privacy of private life (Article 20 of the Constitution). The requirement of “permanently unable to procreate” for gender reassignment was thereby annulled by the Constitutional Court. Decision available at:



Тесленко проти України (заява № 55528/08) (Teslenko v. Ukraine, Application No. 55528/08) Europe, Ukraine - International Case Law - European Court of Human Rights (Європейський суд з прав людини) (2011)

Custodial violence, International law, Sexual violence and rape

The applicant alleged that police had tortured him and that the domestic authorities had failed to investigate his complaint in that regard. The applicant was apprehended by the police on suspicion of committing several robberies. According to the applicant, the Chief, Deputy Chief of the Criminal Investigation Unit of the Police Department, and other police officers tortured him during his detention at the police station. Police officers allegedly sought but failed to obtain a confession from him. As submitted by the applicant, police officers punched and kicked him, forced him to stand for a long time with his legs wide apart, attempted to insert a truncheon into his anus, and put a plastic bag over his head, stopping him from breathing. Police officers allegedly took him to the police station garage, where they forced him to undress, handcuffed him to a radiator and poured cold water from a car-wash hose on him until he lost consciousness. The applicant’s mother complained to the Ombudsman who wrote to the Ministry of the Interior calling for an investigation. A doctor examined the applicant and discovered 16 bruises on his face, arms, buttocks and legs (with the largest one measuring 21 x 20 centimeters), as well as sores on his wrists and feet. Subsequently, three forensic medical examinations confirmed that the applicant had injuries that could not have been caused by an accidental fall, but could have been caused by handcuffs and as a result of beatings, as well as the use of other measures of physical influence. The prosecutor’s office instituted a criminal investigation into the allegation that police officers had exceeded their powers by engaging in violent and degrading treatment of the applicant. However, domestic courts repeatedly remitted the case for additional investigation. According to the most recent information at the time of ECtHR proceedings, the investigation remained pending. The ECtHR dismissed the Government’s objection as to the exhaustion of domestic remedies, finding that there had been a violation of Article 3 of the ECHR. The Court emphasized that where an individual was taken into police custody in good health but was found to be injured at the time of release, it was the State’s duty to provide a plausible explanation of the cause of the injury. Given that the Ukrainian authorities had neither proved that the applicant had been injured before his detention nor explained the origin of his injuries, they bore the responsibility for those injuries. That finding alone was sufficient to find a breach of Article 3. In these circumstances, the ECHR concluded that, taken as a whole and having regard to its purpose and severity, the ill-treatment at issue amounted to torture within the meaning of Article 3 of the ECHR. Furthermore, during the course of investigations, deficiencies were evident in relation to the diligence of the investigating authorities, and the investigations had continued for seven-and-a-half years without progressing further than a court of first instance review. The ECHR therefore found that there had been a violation of Article 3 of the ECHR under its substantive and procedural limbs.

Заявник стверджував, що поліція катувала його, а національні органи влади не розслідували його скаргу щодо цього. Заявника було затримано поліцією за підозрою у скоєнні кількох пограбувань. За словами заявника, начальник, заступник начальника відділу кримінального розшуку поліції та інші поліцейські катували його під час тримання під вартою у відділку поліції. Поліцейські нібито намагалися, але не змогли отримати від нього зізнання. Як стверджував заявник, поліцейські били його кулаками і ногами, змушували довго стояти з широко розставленими ногами, намагалися вставити кийок йому в анус і накладали поліетиленовий пакет на голову, не даючи дихати. Поліцейські нібито відвезли його в гараж відділку, де змусили роздягнутися, прикували наручниками до радіатора і поливали холодною водою з шланга для миття автомобілів, поки він не знепритомнів. Мати заявника звернулася до Омбудсмана, який написав до Міністерства внутрішніх справ із закликом до розслідування. Лікар оглянув заявника і виявив 16 синців на обличчі, руках, сідницях і ногах (найбільший з яких мав розміри 21 x 20 сантиметрів), а також виразки на зап'ястях і ступнях. Згодом три судово-медичні експертизи підтвердили, що заявник мав ушкодження, які не могли бути спричинені випадковим падінням, але могли бути спричинені наручниками та в результаті побиття, а також застосування інших заходів фізичного впливу. Прокуратура порушила кримінальну справу щодо перевищення поліцейськими своїх повноважень, вдавшись до насильницьких і принижуючих гідність дій щодо заявника. Однак національні суди неодноразово повертали справу на додаткове розслідування. Згідно з останньою інформацією на момент розгляду справи ЄСПЛ, розслідування залишалося незавершеним. ЄСПЛ відхилив заперечення Уряду щодо вичерпання національних засобів правового захисту, визнавши, що було порушено статтю 3 ЄКПЛ. Суд наголосив, що коли особу затримують поліцією в доброму стані здоров'я, але при звільненні виявляють у неї тілесні ушкодження, обов'язок держави полягає в наданні правдоподібного пояснення причини цих ушкоджень. Оскільки українська влада не довела, що заявник отримав ушкодження до його затримання, і не пояснила походження його ушкоджень, вона несе відповідальність за ці ушкодження. Цього висновку було достатньо для встановлення порушення статті 3. За таких обставин ЄСПЛ дійшов висновку, що з огляду на цілі і тяжкість, жорстоке поводження у цій справі становило тортури у розумінні статті 3 ЄКПЛ. Крім того, в ході розслідувань були виявлені недоліки у старанності слідчих органів, і розслідування тривало протягом семи з половиною років без просування далі суду першої інстанції. Таким чином, ЄСПЛ визнав, що було порушено статтю 3 ЄКПЛ за її матеріальним і процесуальним аспектами.



Яценко проти України (заява № 75345/01) (Yatsenko v. Ukraine, Application No. 75345/01) Europe, Ukraine - International Case Law - European Court of Human Rights (Європейський суд з прав людини) (2015)

Custodial violence, International law, Sexual violence and rape

The applicant alleged that the police authorities had mistreated him and there had been no effective investigation into his complaints. Police officers arrested the applicant on suspicion of extortion. The officers took him to the police station, where he was questioned. While in the custody of the police, they called an ambulance for the applicant as he was complaining of kidney pains. As a result, the applicant underwent treatment at the hospital for a ruptured kidney, craniocerebral trauma, and post-traumatic nearsightedness. The applicant complained of ill-treatment by police officers; namely, that officers had punched and kicked him in the face, chin, nape of the neck, ears, chest, back, and other body parts. They had also threatened him with rape, ordered him to strip naked, and twisted his testicles. He had eventually agreed to cooperate with the police while being kept under administrative arrest for hooliganism. As a result of these complaints, the prosecutor’s office instituted a criminal investigation into the allegations of injuries and abuse of power by the police officers. The investigator ordered a forensic medical examination of the applicant to establish whether any injuries had been inflicted on him and the cause of any such damages. This examination found that the applicant had a concussion and a bruised kidney, which could have occurred, as alleged, during the applicant's detention. However, the prosecutor’s office discontinued criminal proceedings because of the absence evidence against the police officers. The applicant protested the discontinuation of the investigation, and the case was sent for additional investigation. Subsequently, the prosecutor’s office resumed the investigation into the applicant's complaints and the applicant was granted the status of victim, but that was the end of progress. Given the substantial delay in the investigation and the limited State investigation, the ECtHR concluded that there has been a breach of the procedural obligation under Article 3 of the ECHR in that the Government did not investigate the applicant’s complaints about his ill-treatment promptly and effectively.

Заявник стверджував, що (і) він зазнав поганого поводження з боку поліції, а також що (іі) не було проведено ефективного розслідування його скарг. Поліцейські затримали заявника за підозрою у вимаганні. Його доставили до поліцейського відділку, де його допитували. Під час перебування під вартою поліції заявник скаржився на болі в нирках, і поліцейські викликали йому швидку допомогу. У результаті заявника госпіталізували для лікування розриву нирки, черепно-мозкової травми та посттравматичної короткозорості. Заявник скаржився на погане поводження з боку поліцейських, зокрема, на те, що його били кулаками і ногами по обличчю, підборіддю, потилиці, вухах, грудях, спині та інших частинах тіла. Йому також погрожували зґвалтуванням, наказували роздягатися догола і викручували яєчка. Він зрештою погодився співпрацювати з поліцією, перебуваючи під адміністративним арештом за хуліганство. У результаті цих скарг прокуратура порушила кримінальне розслідування щодо заяв про отримані тілесні ушкодження та зловживання владою з боку поліцейських. Слідчий призначив судово-медичну експертизу заявника, щоб встановити, чи були йому завдані тілесні ушкодження та які причини цих ушкоджень. Ця експертиза встановила, що заявник мав струс мозку та забиту нирку, що могло статися, як стверджував заявник, під час його затримання. Однак прокуратура припинила кримінальне провадження через відсутність доказів проти поліцейських. Заявник протестував проти припинення розслідування, і справу було направлено на додаткове розслідування. Згодом прокуратура відновила розслідування скарг заявника, і заявникові було надано статус потерпілого, але на цьому прогрес закінчився. З огляду на суттєву затримку розслідування та обмежене державне розслідування, ЄСПЛ дійшов висновку, що було порушено процесуальний обов'язок відповідно до статті 3 ЄКПЛ, оскільки Уряд не провів розслідування скарг заявника про його погане поводження оперативно та ефективно.



Серіков проти України (заява № 56920/10) (Serikov v. Ukraine, Application No. 56920/10) Europe, Ukraine - International Case Law - European Court of Human Rights (Європейський суд з прав людини) (2015)

Custodial violence, International law, Sexual violence and rape

The applicant complained to the ECtHR that (i) he was ill-treated by police officers and (ii) the domestic authorities had failed to effectively investigate his allegations in violation of Article 3 of the ECHR. The applicant had been arrested by police officers of the drug crimes unit and taken to a police station. According to the applicant, he was mistreated in order to make him confess. In particular, he alleged that he was threatened with rape, kicked and hit on the head and torso, threatened with weapons, and dropped face down on the floor while handcuffed. As a result, he lost consciousness several times. On arrival at the station, the applicant’s mother found him with bruises on his face, a swollen chin, and handcuff marks on his wrists. The applicant was released after he signed documents stating that he had no complaints against the police. Following his release and subsequent complaints, the prosecutor's office refused to institute criminal proceedings against the police officers. The national courts repeatedly set aside decisions to refuse to initiate criminal proceedings and ordered additional inquiries. However, the prosecutor’s office continued to refuse to initiate criminal proceedings for over two years. The ECtHR concluded that these complaints should be considered exclusively under the substantive and procedural aspects of Article 3 of the ECHR. The Government argued that the applicant's complaints were groundless because the emergency medical assistant had not recorded any bodily injuries on the applicant, but the Court found this argument not credible and rejected it. Noting that the burden of explanation rested on the Government, the Court concluded that the Government had not demonstrated that the applicant's injuries had been caused in a manner other than as a result of ill-treatment by police officers. Thus, there had been a violation of the substantive aspect of Article 3 of the ECHR. In response to the applicant's complaints about the lack of effective investigation into his allegations, the ECtHR reiterated that the prosecutor's office had only considered the relevant complaints within the framework of investigative checks, and no criminal investigation had been initiated. The national courts had also repeatedly instructed the prosecutor's office to conduct additional investigations, but the prosecutor’s office ignored those instructions. Thus, the ECtHR concluded that the national authorities had failed to ensure an effective investigation into the applicant's allegations of ill-treatment in violation of the procedural aspect of Article 3 of the ECHR.

Заявник скаржився до ЄСПЛ на (i) жорстоке поводження з боку поліцейських, а також на те, що (ii) національні органи влади не провели ефективного розслідування його заяв у порушення статті 3 ЄКПЛ. Заявника було затримано співробітниками підрозділу боротьби з наркотиками та доставлено до поліцейського відділку. За словами заявника, з ним жорстоко поводилися, щоб змусити його зізнатися у скоєнні кримінального правопорушення. Зокрема, він стверджував, що йому погрожували зґвалтуванням, били по голові та тулубу, погрожували зброєю та кидали обличчям донизу на підлогу в наручниках. У результаті він кілька разів втрачав свідомість. Після прибуття до відділку, мати заявника виявила у нього синці на обличчі, набряклий підборіддя і сліди від наручників на зап'ястях. Заявника було звільнено після підписання документів, у яких він заявив, що не має претензій до поліції. Після його звільнення та подальших скарг прокуратура відмовилася порушувати кримінальні справи проти поліцейських. Національні суди неодноразово скасовували рішення про відмову в порушенні кримінальних справ і наказували провести додаткові розслідування. Проте прокуратура продовжувала відмовляти у порушенні кримінальних справ понад два роки. ЄСПЛ дійшов висновку, що ці скарги слід розглядати виключно в контексті матеріальних і процесуальних аспектів статті 3 ЄКПЛ. Уряд стверджував, що скарги заявника були безпідставними, оскільки медичний працівник швидкої допомоги не зафіксував у заявника тілесних ушкоджень, але суд не визнав цей аргумент переконливим і відхилив його. Відзначивши, що обов'язок пояснення лежав на Уряді, суд дійшов висновку, що Уряд не продемонстрував, що ушкодження заявника були спричинені іншим способом, ніж в результаті жорстокого поводження з боку поліцейських. Таким чином, було встановлено порушення матеріального аспекту статті 3 ЄКПЛ. У відповідь на скарги заявника щодо відсутності ефективного розслідування його заяв, ЄСПЛ підкреслив, що прокуратура розглядала відповідні скарги лише в рамках слідчих перевірок, а кримінальне розслідування не було розпочато. Національні суди також неодноразово доручали прокуратурі проводити додаткові розслідування, але прокуратура ігнорувала ці інструкції. Таким чином, ЄСПЛ дійшов висновку, що національні органи влади не забезпечили ефективного розслідування заяв про погане поводження, що є порушенням процесуального аспекту статті 3 ЄКПЛ.



Жердєв проти України (Заява № 34015/07) (Zherdev v. Ukraine, Application No. 34015/07) Europe, Ukraine - International Case Law - European Court of Human Rights (Європейський суд з прав людини) (2017)

Custodial violence, International law, Sexual violence and rape

The applicant, a 16-year-old boy, was held in handcuffs and underwear in a police station for 2.5 hours and subsequently placed in a cell with adults. He was interviewed at a police station concerning a murder, rape, and robbery investigation. According to the applicant, under this pressure, he confessed to murder. Domestic courts convicted the applicant of robbery and aggravated murder, and sentenced him to 13 years’ imprisonment. The court rejected the applicant’s argument that his confessions were inadmissible because they had been obtained under duress. Domestic courts noted that there was no evidence that the police had inflicted any physical injuries on the applicant. The ECtHR held that there had been a violation of Article 3 of the ECHR. The authorities had a valid reason for taking his clothes, which could have provided physical proof of his involvement in the crime. However, the applicant was a minor and there was no explanation for the failure to provide him with replacement clothes sooner and to keep him handcuffed in that state for at least two and a half hours. The applicant reported that he was concerned that he might be charged with a sex offense and exposed to a risk of rape in prison. Moreover, his placement, in violation of domestic law, with adult detainees for three days must have contributed to his feelings of fear, anguish, helplessness, and inferiority, and so diminished his dignity. The applicant had thus been subjected to “degrading” treatment. The threat of rape to obtain evidence (in particular, confessions) or for other reasons in criminal proceedings violates Article 3. Therefore, there was a breach of the applicant’s Article 3 rights and also Article 5 rights relating to the length of his detention; he was awarded damages in relation to these violations. Furthermore, the Court found that the Ukraine breached its obligations under the procedural limb of Article 3 by failing to conduct an effective investigation of the applicant’s complaints. However, there was no evidence that the applicant’s admissions resulted from the impugned treatment. Further, various other admissions were made by the applicant at various other stages of the trial. Therefore, there was no breach of his Article 6 rights to a fair trial.

Заявник, 16-річний хлопець, утримувався у наручниках та спідній білизні в поліцейському відділку протягом 2,5 годин, а потім був поміщений у камеру з дорослими. Його допитували в поліцейському відділку у зв'язку з розслідуванням вбивства, зґвалтування та пограбування. Заявник стверджував, що під тиском він визнався у вбивстві. Внутрішні суди засудили заявника за розбій та ускладнене вбивство та засудили його до 13 років ув'язнення. Суд відхилив аргумент заявника, що його зізнання були недопустимими доказами через тиск. Внутрішні суди відзначили, що немає доказів, що поліцейські завдали заявнику фізичних ушкоджень. ЄСПЛ визначив, що було порушено статтю 3 Європейської конвенції про права людини. У органів досудового розслідування був обґрунтований привід для позбавлення заявника одягу, який міг би слугувати матеріальним доказом його причетності до злочину. Однак, заявник був неповнолітнім, і не було пояснення, чому йому не було надано замінний одяг швидше і чому його тримали у наручниках в такому стані принаймні дві з половиною години. Заявник повідомив, що він був занепокоєний можливістю бути звинуваченим у сексуальному злочині та наражений на ризик зґвалтування в тюрмі. Крім того, його утримання з дорослими протягом трьох днів, в порушення національного закону, мусило сприяти його почуттю страху, страждання, безпорадності та неповноцінність, тим самим принижуючи його гідність. Заявник таким чином був підданий "понижуючому" поводження. Погроза зґвалтуванням для отримання доказів (зокрема, зізнань) або з інших причин у кримінальних провадженнях порушує статтю 3. Тому було порушено права заявника за статтею 3 та також за статтею 5, що стосуються тривалості його утримання, йому були призначені компенсації у зв'язку з цими порушеннями. Крім того, Суд визнав, що Україна порушила свої обов'язки згідно з процедурною складовою статті 3, не здійснивши ефективного розслідування скарг заявника. Однак немає доказів, що зізнання заявника були наслідком нелюдського поводження. Крім того, різні інші зізнання були отримані від заявника на різних етапах судового розгляду. Тому не було порушення його прав на справедливий суд згідно зі статтею 6.



проти України (Заява № 40296/16) (P. v. Ukraine, Application No. 40296/16) Europe, Ukraine - International Case Law - European Court of Human Rights (Європейський суд з прав людини) (2019)

Gender discrimination, International law, LGBTIQ

The applicant was registered as a boy at birth in Ukraine, with a male name. Throughout the decision, the European Court of Human Rights (“ECtHR”) referred to the applicant with male pronouns with which the applicant does not identify. This summary will use female pronouns in line with the applicant’s identity. According to the applicant, she never identified with the assigned male gender. She was diagnosed with Klinefelter syndrome (mosaic form), hypergonadotropic hypogonadism (diminished functional activity of the testes), bilateral cryptorchidism (undescended testes), and intersexualism. The applicant requested that the Civil Status Registration Office amend her birth certificate from “male” to “female,” which was rejected in the absence of a medical certificate proving that she had undergone gender reassignment procedures. The applicant challenged that refusal before the courts. She argued that the statutory rules on changing, renewing or annulling civil status registration records provided the possibility of changing one’s civil records following gender reassignment/correction. Under the legislation in force, however, seeking the legal reassignment of one’s gender was possible only in cases of transsexualism. The domestic courts found against the applicant, noting that the legislation provided that civil status records of transsexual persons could be changed following gender reassignment/correction but did not cover the situation of intersex people. However, the court held that it remained open for the applicant to seek a judicial decision acknowledging that her gender had been erroneously defined as male at birth. Accordingly, her identity documents could be subsequently altered on those grounds. The applicant complained to the ECtHR on the grounds that there was no procedure in Ukraine allowing intersex people to change their gender and name records according to their self-identification and that she had suffered discrimination in the enjoyment of her rights under European Convention on Human Rights (“ECHR”) for being an intersex person, relying on Articles 8, 13, and 14 of the ECHR. The ECtHR noted that the applicant did not exhaust domestic remedies; namely, she had not embarked on the route suggested by the domestic courts. In the absence of legal provisions explicitly covering intersex people, she had not considered basing her claim on the Rules “as on changing, renewing or annulling civil status registration records” the domestic court guided her. Overall, the ECtHR considered there was no reason for the applicant to insist on the absence of a legal mechanism instead of trying the one suggested by the administrative court, which could not be regarded as obviously futile. The complaint was therefore inadmissible.

При народженні (в Україні) Заявник була зареєстрована як хлопчик з чоловічим ім'ям. В рішенні ЄСПЛ звертався до заявника з чоловічими займенниками, з якими вона себе не ідентифікується. У цьому резюме будуть використовуватися жіночі займенники відповідно до ідентифікації заявника. Заявник ніколи не ідентифікувалась з призначеною їй чоловічою статтю. В неї була встановлено діагноз Клайнфельтера (мозаїчна форма), гіпергонадотропний гіпогонадизм (знижена функціональна активність яєчників) та білатеральний крипторхідизм (неопущення яєчок) і інтерсексуальність. Заявник звернулась до Органу реєстрації цивільного стану з проханням змінити свою стать у свідоцтві про народження з "чоловічого" на "жіноче", що було відхилено через відсутність медичного свідоцтва, яке б довело, що вона пройшла процедури зміни статі. Заявник оскаржила цю відмову в суді. Вона стверджувала, що законодавчі правила щодо зміни, оновлення або анулювання записів про реєстрацію цивільного стану передбачають можливість зміни власних громадянських записів після зміни/корекції статі. Однак, згідно з чинним законодавством, юридична зміна статі була можлива лише у випадку транссексуальності. Національні суди вирішили справу не на користь заявника, зауваживши, що законодавство передбачало, що записи про громадянський стан транссексуальних осіб можна було змінити після зміни/корекції статі, але не охоплювало ситуацію інтерсексуальних осіб. Однак суд постановив, що заявник може звернутися до суду з позовом про визнання того, що її стать при народженні була помилково визначена як чоловіча. Відповідно, її документи, що посвідчують особу, могли бути подальше змінені з цих підстав. Заявник скаржився до Європейського суду з прав людини з тим, що в Україні відсутня процедура, яка дозволяла б інтерсексуальним особам змінювати свої записи про стать та ім'я відповідно до їх самоідентифікації, і що вона страждав від дискримінації у користуванні своїми правами згідно з Конвенцією про права людини за те, що вона є інтерсексуальною особою, поклавшись на статті 8, 13 та 14 Конвенції. ЄСПЛ відзначив, що заявник не вичерпала внутрішні засоби правового захисту; зокрема, вона не скористалась варіантом, який пропонували національні суди. У відсутності правових положень, які явно охоплювали б інтерсексуальних осіб, вона не розглядала можливість засновувати свій позов на Правилах "про зміну, оновлення або анулювання записів про реєстрацію цивільного стану", як національний суд скерував її. Загалом, ЄСПЛ вважав, що немає підстав для того, щоб заявник наполягала на відсутності правового механізму, замість спроби використати той, який пропонував адміністративний суд, що не може розглядатися як очевидно марною. Скарга була відхилена.



State v Cloete Africa, Namibia - Domestic Case Law - High Court of Namibia (2018)

Domestic and intimate partner violence, Femicide

The defendant was convicted of housebreaking with an intent to murder and murder read with the provisions of the Combating Domestic Violence Act 4 of 2003. The defendant and the deceased were in a domestic relationship and had a child together. There was no dispute that at the time of the incident while the defendant killed the deceased by stabbing her at least eight times. The court held that although the defendant was a first-time offender, the serious crime of violence against women was on the rise across the country; the sentence must send a clear message to society that such behavior cannot be tolerated or condoned. The defendant was sentenced to 32 years imprisonment.



State v Koch Africa, Namibia - Domestic Case Law - Supreme Court of Namibia (2022)

Statutory rape or defilement, Trafficking in persons

The respondent, a 42-year old man, was charged with child trafficking and rape of five minor girls aged between 9 and 13. The trial court convicted him of trafficking the children and sentenced him to eight years in prison, but not guilty of rape. The Supreme Court affirmed the trial court verdicts after the state appealed, but increased the sentence. The court found that child-complainants’ testimonies were too inconsistent to prove rape. While the trial court theorized that the children could have been coached, the Supreme Court found that theory baseless and instead considered that they “were children of tender age and therefore the power of memory and their ability to narrate events accurately and consistently may not be the same as an adult.” Both courts found the medical evidence insufficient and inconclusive regarding rape. As a result of these issues, the respondent was found not guilty of the rape offenses, which the Supreme Court affirmed on appeal. However, despite the “tenuous” testimony of the child-complainants, both courts found the respondent guilty of four counts of trafficking children for sexual exploitation. Finding that the trial court gave too much weight to the respondent’s personal circumstances and pretrial detention “at the expense of […] the seriousness of the offences and the interests of society,” the Supreme Court resentenced the respondent to 18 years in prison.



Combating of Trafficking in Persons Act Africa, Namibia - Legislation - (2018)

International law, Sexual violence and rape, Statutory rape or defilement, Trafficking in persons

The Combating of Trafficking in Persons Act gives effect to the United Nations Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children. The Act criminalizes trafficking in persons and associated offenses and aims to protect and assist trafficking victims particularly women and children. The penalties prescribed by the Act are up to 30 years’ imprisonment or significant fines for trafficking in persons, facilitating trafficking in persons, debt bondage, offenses related to identification documents used to facilitate trafficking in persons, intentionally benefiting financially or otherwise from the services of a victim of trafficking in persons and knowingly transporting victims of trafficking in persons.



Miller v. Minister of Defense et. al. Asia, Israel - Domestic Case Law - High Court of Justice (1995)

Employment discrimination, Gender discrimination

The petitioner requested that the army (“the respondent”)assign her to the air force for training as a pilot. The respondent argued that the huge investment involved in training a pilot was not justified for women since the service time of women was shorter than men; the time of pregnancy or childbirth would also disrupt the daily air force training. The petitioner argued that the respondent failed to prove that women joining aviation would seriously harm national security, which was against common sense and experience. The Supreme Court sitting as the High Court of Justice held that the budgetary and planning considerations did not justify a general policy of rejecting all women from aviation courses.



A. v. Haifa Rabbinical Court Asia, Israel - Domestic Case Law - High Court of Justice (2018)

Divorce and dissolution of marriage, Property and inheritance rights

The legal question is whether the Supreme Court sitting as the High Court of Justice should intervene in the ruling of the Great Rabbinical Court or not. The husband (“respondent 3”) owned an apartment and had no intention of sharing the ownership with the petitioner in a divorce case, which was first submitted to the Regional Rabbinical Court. The Regional Rabbinical Court ( “respondent 2”) decided that the petitioner had a part in the ownership based on the Presumption of Community or Joint Property while the Great Rabbinical Court (“the appellate court”) overturned this decision on appeal. The petitioner argued that the appellate court exceeded its power because it considered the petitioner’s infidelity in deciding the issue of residential home co-ownership, which was in the field of religious law. Specifically, the appellate court found that respondent 3’s intention to own the property in partnership with his wife was “mistaken” and he was “deceived and misled,” which voided his intention. In a 2-1 decision, the court, sitting as the High Court of Justice, denied the petition because the court was confined to determining the question of competence and to correcting fundamental errors in the appellate process. In a lengthy opinion, the dissenting justice argued that the appellate court improperly applied religious law – which applies to marriage and divorce – to property law, which governs marital property. The dissenting justice argued that the court had grounds to interfere in the appellate judgment and uphold the petitioner’s claim to rights in the disputed property.



חוק לעידוד של שילוב וקידום של נשים בעבודה ושל התאמת מקומות עבודה לנשים, תשס"ח-2008 (Law to Encourage the Advancement and Integration of Women in the Work force and the Adjustment of Workplaces to Women’s Needs 2008) Asia, Israel - Legislation - (2008)

Employment discrimination

The law aims to generate change in business culture and promote awareness of women’s rights. The law allows the Ministry of Economy and Industry to provide substantial monetary incentives and annual grants to private sector employers that initiate programs that advance and integrate women in the workplace. For example, employers might meet eligibility criteria by modifying their workplace and offering work conditions to address the needs of women and parents.



חוק לעידוד של שילוב וקידום של נשים בעבודה ושל התאמת מקומות עבודה לנשים, תשס"ח-2008Law to Encourage the Advancement and Integration of Women in the Work force and the Adjustment of Workplaces to Women’s Needs 2008 Israel, Asia - Legislation - (2008)

Employment discrimination

The law aims to generate change in business culture and promote awareness of women’s rights. The law allows the Ministry of Economy and Industry to provide substantial monetary incentives and annual grants to private sector employers that initiate programs that advance and integrate women in the workplace. For example, employers might meet eligibility criteria by modifying their workplace and offering work conditions to address the needs of women and parents.



חוק לעידוד של שילוב וקידום של נשים בעבודה ושל התאמת מקומות עבודה לנשים, תשס"ח-2008Law to Encourage the Advancement and Integration of Women in the Work force and the Adjustment of Workplaces to Women’s Needs 2008 Israel - Legislation - (2008)

Employment discrimination

The law aims to generate a change in the business culture and promote awareness of women’s rights. The law encourages employers to advance and integrate women in the workplace through substantial monetary incentives and grants provided annually by the Ministry of Economy and Industry to private sector employers who strive to integrate and promote women in the workplace, and employers who initiate respective programs. The grants are also given to employers who modify their workplace and offered work conditions to address the needs of women and parents.