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  1. LII
  2. U.S. Constitution Annotated
  3. Article I. Legislative Branch

    Article I

    • Overview of Article I
    • Section 1 Legislative Vesting Clause
      • Overview of the Legislative Vesting Clause
      • Legislative Vesting Clause: Historical Background
        • Origin of Limits on Federal Power
        • Origin of a Bicameral Congress
        • The Great Compromise of the Constitutional Convention
        • Legislative Power and the Executive and Judicial Branches
      • Legislative Power in the Constitutional Framework
        • Separation of Powers and Checks and Balances
        • Functional and Formalist Approaches to Separation of Powers
        • Enumerated, Implied, Resulting, and Inherent Powers
        • Bicameralism
      • Delegations of Legislative Power
        • Overview of Delegations of Legislative Power
        • Background on Delegating Legislative Power
        • Delegating Legislative Power to Fill Up the Details
        • Contingent Legislation and Nondelegation Doctrine
      • Nondelegation Doctrine
        • Historical Background on the Nondelegation Doctrine
        • Origin of the Intelligible Principle Standard
        • Nature and Scope of the Intelligible Principle Standard
        • Agency Discretion and Chevron Deference
        • Major Questions Doctrine and Canons of Statutory Construction
      • Categories of Legislative Delegations
        • Criminal Statutes and the Nondelegation Doctrine
        • Delegations of Foreign and Military Affairs to the President
        • States and Legislative Power Delegations
        • Quasi-Governmental Entities and Legislative Power Delegations
        • Private Entities and Legislative Power Delegations
        • Taxes and Delegations of Legislative Power
        • Individual Liberties and Delegations of Legislative Power
    • Section 2 House of Representatives
      • Clause 1 Composition
        • Congressional Districts
        • Voter Qualifications for House of Representatives Elections
      • Clause 2 Member Qualifications
        • Overview of House Qualifications Clause
        • Ability of Congress to Change Qualifications for Members
        • Ability of States to Add Qualifications for Members
      • Clause 3 Allocation of Seats
        • Enumeration Clause and Apportioning Seats in the House of Representatives
      • Clause 4 Vacancies Clause
        • House Vacancies Clause
      • Clause 5 Impeachment
        • Impeachment Overview
        • Historical Background of Impeachment
        • Impeachment Doctrine
        • Alternatives to Impeachment
    • Section 3 Senate
      • Clause 1 Composition
        • Equal Representation of States in the Senate
        • Historical Background on State Voting Rights in Congress
        • Selection of Senators by State Legislatures
        • Six-Year Senate Terms
      • Clause 2 Seats
        • Staggered Senate Elections
        • Senate Vacancies Clause
      • Clause 3 Qualifications
        • Overview of Senate Qualifications Clause
        • When Qualification Requirements Must Be Met
        • Ability of Congress to Change Senate Qualification Requirements
        • Ability of States to Add to Senate Qualification Requirements
      • Clause 4 President
        • President of the Senate
      • Clause 5 Officers
        • Senate Officers
      • Clause 6 Impeachment Trials
        • Overview of Impeachment Trials
        • Historical Background of Impeachment Trials
        • Impeachment Trial Practices
        • Oath or Affirmation Requirement in Impeachment Trials
        • Impeaching the President
      • Clause 7 Impeachment Judgments
        • Overview of Impeachment Judgments
        • Impeachment Judgment Doctrine
    • Section 4 Congress
      • Clause 1 Elections Clause
        • Historical Background on the Elections Clause
        • States and the Elections Clause
        • Congress and the Elections Clause
      • Clause 2 Assembly
        • When Congress Shall Assemble
    • Section 5 Proceedings
      • Clause 1 Authority
        • Congressional Authority over Elections, Returns, and Qualifications
        • Quorums in Congress
      • Clause 2 Rules
        • Rules, Punishments, and Expulsions
          • Congressional Proceedings and the Rulemaking Clause
          • Punishments and Expulsions from Congress
            • Overview of the Expulsion Clause
            • Historical Background of the Expulsion Clause
            • Judicial Interpretations of the Expulsion Clause
            • Misconduct That Occurred in Office
            • Misconduct Occurring Prior to Election or Reelection
            • House of Representatives Treatment of Prior Misconduct
            • Senate Treatment of Prior Misconduct
      • Clause 3 Records
        • Requirement that Congress Keep a Journal
      • Clause 4 Sessions
        • Adjournment of Congress
    • Section 6 Rights and Disabilities
      • Clause 1 Compensation, Privileges, and Immunities
        • Compensation of Members of Congress
        • Privilege from Arrest
        • Speech or Debate Clause
          • Overview of the Speech or Debate Clause
          • Historical Background on the Speech or Debate Clause
          • Activities to Which the Speech or Debate Clause Applies
          • The Distraction Rationale and the Speech or Debate Clause
          • Treatment of Communications Outside the Legislative Process
          • The Subpoena Power and Congress
          • Persons Who Can Claim the Speech or Debate Privilege
      • Clause 2 Bar on Holding Federal Office
        • Overview of the Federal Office Prohibition
        • The Ineligibility Clause (Emoluments or Sinecure Clause) and Congress
        • The Incompatibility Clause and Congress
    • Section 7 Legislation
      • Clause 1 Revenue
        • Origination Clause and Revenue Bills
      • Clause 2 Role of President
        • Presidential Approval or Veto of Bills
          • Overview of Presidential Approval or Veto of Bills
          • The Veto Power
          • Line Item Veto
          • Legislative Veto
      • Clause 3 Process
        • Presentation of Senate or House Resolutions
    • Section 8 Enumerated Powers
      • Clause 1 General Welfare Clause
        • Taxation
          • Overview of the Taxing Clause
          • Historical Background of the Taxing Power
          • The Uniformity Clause and Indirect Taxes
          • Taxes to Regulate Conduct
          • The Intergovernmental Tax Immunity Doctrine
        • The Spending Power
          • Overview of the Spending Clause
          • Historical Background of the Spending Clause
          • Early Spending Clause Jurisprudence
          • Modern Spending Clause Jurisprudence Generally
          • Clear Notice Requirement and the Spending Clause
          • Anti-Coercion Requirement and the Spending Clause
          • The General Welfare, Relatedness, and Independent Constitutional Bars
      • Clause 2 Borrowing
        • Borrowing Power of Congress
      • Clause 3 Commerce
        • Overview of the Commerce Clause
        • Meaning of Commerce
        • Meaning of Among the Several States in the Commerce Clause
        • Meaning of Regulate in the Commerce Clause
        • Historical Background on the Commerce Clause Cases
          • The Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890 and the Sugar Trust Case
          • The Current of Commerce Concept and the 1905 Swift Case
          • The Packers and Stockyards Act of 1921 and the Grain Futures Act of 1922
          • New Deal Legislation Generally
          • National Industrial Recovery and Agricultural Adjustment Acts of 1933
          • Railroad Retirement and Securities Exchange Acts of 1934
          • Public Utility Holding Company and Bituminous Coal Conservation Acts of 1935
          • National Labor Relations Act of 1935
          • Agricultural Marketing Agreement Act of 1937
          • Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938
          • Dual Federalism and the Commerce Clause
        • Modern Interstate Commerce Clause Doctrine
          • United States v. Lopez and the Interstate Commerce Clause
          • Channels of Interstate Commerce
          • Persons or Things in and Instrumentalities of Interstate Commerce
          • Intrastate Activities Having a Substantial Relation to Interstate Commerce
          • Limits on Federal Regulation of Intrastate Activity
          • Regulation of Activity Versus Inactivity
          • Regulation of Interstate Commerce to Achieve Policy Goals
          • Civil Rights and the Commerce Clause
          • Criminal Law and the Commerce Clause
        • Dormant Commerce Clause
          • Overview of the Dormant Commerce Clause
          • Historical Background of the Dormant Commerce Clause
          • Early Dormant Commerce Clause Jurisprudence
          • Modern Dormant Commerce Clause Jurisprudence Generally
          • General Prohibition on Facial Discrimination
          • The State Proprietary Activity (Market Participant) Exception
          • Congressional Authorization of Otherwise Impermissible State Action
          • Facially Neutral Laws
          • Traditional Government Functions
          • Foreign Commerce and State Powers
          • State Taxation
            • Overview of State Taxation and the Dormant Commerce Clause
            • Early Dormant Commerce Clause Jurisprudence on State Taxation
            • Modern Dormant Commerce Clause Jurisprudence on State Taxation Generally
            • The Nexus Prong of the Complete Auto Test for Taxes on Interstate Commerce
            • The Apportionment Prong of the Complete Auto Test for Taxes on Interstate Commerce
            • The Discrimination Prong of the Complete Auto Test for Taxes on Interstate Commerce
            • The Benefit Prong of the Complete Auto Test for Taxes on Interstate Commerce
        • Foreign
          • Overview of Foreign Commerce Clause
          • Instruments of Commerce
        • Commerce With Native American Tribes: Scope of Authority
        • Commerce With Native American Tribes: Restrictions on State Powers
      • Clause 4 Naturalization and Bankruptcy Clauses
        • Naturalization
          • Overview of Naturalization Clause
          • Historical Background (1600-1820)
            • British and American Colonial Doctrine
            • The United States Constitution and the Naturalization Clause
            • Early U.S. Naturalization Laws
            • Naturalization as an Exclusive Power of Congress
            • Collective Naturalization (1800-1900)
          • Post-1900 Doctrine Generally
          • Children
            • Naturalization of Children Born Abroad
            • Rogers v. Bellei
            • Sessions v. Morales-Santana
          • Denaturalization
            • Denaturalization (Revocation of Citizenship) Generally
            • Early Jurisprudence on Congress’s Denaturalization Power
            • Limitations to Congress’s Denaturalization Power
            • Burden of Proving Unlawful Procurement of Citizenship
            • Standard to Establish Concealment of a Material Fact
          • Expatriation
            • Expatriation (Termination of Citizenship) Generally
            • Development and Interpretation of the Doctrine of Expatriation
            • Legislation Concerning Expatriation of U.S. Citizens
            • Initial Judicial Recognition of Congress’s Broad Power over Expatriation
            • Judicial Limitations on Congress’s Expatriation Power
        • Bankruptcy Clause
          • Overview of the Bankruptcy Clause
          • Historical Background on the Bankruptcy Clause
          • Scope of the Federal Bankruptcy Clause
          • Expansion of the Scope of the Bankruptcy Power
          • Constitutional Limitations on the Bankruptcy Power
          • Restriction on State Bankruptcy Power
      • Clause 5 Standards
        • Coinage Power
      • Clause 6 Counterfeiters
        • Counterfeiting Power
      • Clause 7 Post Offices
        • Postal Power: Historical Background
        • Power to Protect the Mails
        • Power to Prevent Harmful Use of Postal Facilities
        • Exclusive Power as an Adjunct to Other Powers
        • Restrictions on State Power
      • Clause 8 Intellectual Property
        • Overview of Congress's Power over Intellectual Property
        • Historical Background on the Intellectual Property Clause
          • English Origins of Intellectual Property Law
          • The Framing and Ratification of the Intellectual Property Clause
        • Copyrights
          • Authorship, Writings, and Originality
          • Limited Times and the Progress of Science
          • Copyright and the First Amendment
        • Patents
          • Inventorship and Utility
          • Patent-Eligible Subject Matter
          • Constitutional Constraints on Congressional Power over Granted Patents
        • Federal Power Over Trademarks
        • State Regulation of Intellectual Property
      • Clause 9 Courts
        • Inferior Federal Courts
      • Clause 10 Maritime Crimes
        • Clause 10 Maritime Crimes: Historical Background
        • Definition of Maritime Crimes and Offenses
        • Extraterritorial Reach
      • Clause 11 War Powers
        • Source of War Powers
        • Scope of Congress’s War Powers
        • Declarations of War
        • Enemy Property and Congress’s War Power
        • Prizes of War and Congress’s War Powers
      • Clause 12 To Raise and Maintain Armies
        • Historical Background on Congress’s Authority to Raise and Support Armies
        • Time Limit on Appropriations for the Army
        • Conscription
      • Clause 13 Navy Clause
        • The Navy
      • Clause 14 Land and Naval Force Rules
        • Care of the Armed Forces
        • Trial and Punishment of Servicemen (Courts-Martial)
        • Trial and Punishment of Civilians and Dependents
      • Clause 15 To Call Militias
        • Congress's Power to Call Militias
      • Clause 16 Organization of Militias
        • Congress’s Power to Organize Militias
      • Clause 17 Enclave Clause
        • The Capitol
          • Seat of Government Clause Historical Background
          • Seat of Government Doctrine and Practice
        • Places Purchased
          • Places Purchased Clause Overview
          • Federal Jurisdiction
          • Reservation of Jurisdiction by States
      • Clause 18 Necessary and Proper Clause
        • Overview of Necessary and Proper Clause
        • Historical Background of the Necessary and Proper Clause
        • Early Doctrine and McCulloch v. Maryland
        • Post-McCulloch Nineteenth Century Development
        • Twentieth Century to Present Doctrine
        • Meaning of Proper
        • Implied Power of Congress to Conduct Investigations and Oversight
          • Overview of Investigation and Oversight Power of Congress
          • Historical Background on Investigation and Oversight Power of Congress
          • Implied Power of Congress to Conduct Investigations and Oversight : Doctrine and Practice
            • Early Doctrine on Congressional Investigations and Oversight (1787-1864)
            • Postbellum and Pre-War Congressional Investigation and Oversight Doctrine (1865-1940)
            • Mid-Twentieth Century Congressional Investigation and Oversight Developments (1940-1970)
            • Rules-Based Limits of Congressional Investigations and Oversight
            • Limits of Congressional Investigations and Oversight Based on Individual Constitutional Rights
          • Modern Doctrine (1970-present)
            • Watergate, Church, and Pike Investigations of Congress
            • Congress's Investigatory Powers Generally
            • Congress's Investigatory Powers and the President
        • Immigration
          • Immigration : Overview
          • Immigration : Historical Background
            • English Common Law
            • Colonial Practice and Constitutional Convention
            • Early Federal Laws
          • Pre-Plenary Power Jurisprudence (1837–1889)
          • Early Plenary Power Jurisprudence (1889–1900)
          • Twentieth Century Plenary Power Doctrine
            • Twentieth Century Plenary Power Doctrine: Overview
            • Aliens in the United States
            • Aliens Seeking to Enter the United States
          • Modern Jurisprudence
            • Modern Jurisprudence: Overview
            • Exclusion of Aliens
            • Kerry v. Din and Trump v. Hawaii
            • Federal Laws Relating to Aliens
            • Immigration-Related State Laws
          • Conclusion
    • Section 9 Powers Denied Congress
      • Clause 1 Migration or Importation Clause
        • Restrictions on the Slave Trade
      • Clause 2 Habeas Corpus
        • Suspension Clause and Writ of Habeas Corpus
      • Clause 3 Nullification of Procedural Protections
        • Historical Background on Bills of Attainder
        • Doctrine on Bills of Attainder
        • Ex Post Facto Laws
          • Overview of Ex Post Facto Laws
          • Historical Background on Ex Post Facto Laws
          • Retroactivity of Ex Post Facto Laws
          • Ex Post Facto Law Prohibition Limited to Penal Laws
          • Increasing Punishment and Ex Post Facto Laws
          • Imposing Criminal Liability and Ex Post Facto Laws
          • Civil Commitment, Sex Offender Registration, and Ex Post Facto Laws
          • Procedural Changes and Ex Post Facto Laws
          • Employment Qualifications and Ex Post Facto Laws
          • Retroactive Taxes and Ex Post Facto Laws
          • Ex Post Facto Prohibition Does Not Apply to Judicial Decisions
          • Ex Post Facto Laws, Deportation, and Related Issues
      • Clause 4 Direct Taxes
        • Overview of Direct Taxes
        • Historical Background of Direct Taxes
        • Early Precedent on Direct Taxes
        • Direct Taxes and the Sixteenth Amendment
      • Clause 5 Export Taxes
        • Export Clause and Taxes
      • Clause 6 Ports Preferences
        • Clause 6 Ports Preferences: Doctrine and Practice
      • Clause 7 Appropriations Clause
        • Overview of the Appropriations Clause
        • Historical Background of the Appropriations Clause
        • Appropriations Clause Doctrine and Practice
      • Clause 8 Foreign Emoluments and Titles of Nobility
        • Overview of the Foreign Emoluments and Titles of Nobility Clauses
        • Historical Background on the Foreign Emoluments Clause
        • The Foreign Emoluments Clause Generally
        • Titles of Nobility and the Constitution
    • Section 10 Powers Denied States
      • Clause 1 Treaties, Coining Money, Impairing Contracts, etc.
        • Proscribed Powers
          • Foreign Policy by States
          • Coining Money by States
          • Legal Tender Issued by States
        • State Bills of Attainder
        • State Ex Post Facto Laws
        • Contract Clause and States
          • Overview of the Contract Clause
          • Historical Background on the Contract Clause
          • Evolution of the Contract Clause's Use
          • State Contracts
            • Early Cases on State Modifications to State Contracts
            • State Sovereign Powers and Contracts
            • Modern Doctrine on State Modifications to State Contracts
          • Private Contracts
            • Early Cases on State Modifications to Private Contracts
            • Blaisdell Case and State Modifications to Private Contracts
            • State Laws Creating New Contractual Obligations
            • The Public Interest and State Modifications to Private Contracts
      • Clause 2 Imports and Exports
        • Overview of the Import-Export Clause
        • Historical Background on the Import-Export Clause
        • Import-Export Clause Generally
        • Whether a Good Qualifies as an Import or Export
        • Whether a Charge Qualifies as an Impost or Duty
        • State Inspection Charges
      • Clause 3 Acts Requiring Consent of Congress
        • Duties of Tonnage
          • Overview and Historical Background on Duties of Tonnage
          • Determining Whether a Measure Qualifies as a Duty of Tonnage
          • Personal Property Taxes and Duties of Tonnage
        • States and Military Affairs
        • Compacts Clause
          • Overview of the Compact Clause
          • Historical Background of the Compact Clause
          • Subject Matter of Compacts
          • Congressional Consent to Compacts
          • Requirement of Congressional Consent to Compacts
          • Legal Effect and Interpretation of Compacts

U.S. Constitution Annotated Toolbox

  • Explanation of the Constitution - from the Congressional Research Service


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