Article I

• Overview of Article I
• Section 1 Legislative Vesting Clause
  • Overview of the Legislative Vesting Clause
  • Legislative Vesting Clause: Historical Background
    • Origin of Limits on Federal Power
    • Origin of a Bicameral Congress
    • The Great Compromise of the Constitutional Convention
    • Legislative Power and the Executive and Judicial Branches
  • Legislative Power in the Constitutional Framework
    • Separation of Powers and Checks and Balances
    • Functional and Formalist Approaches to Separation of Powers
    • Enumerated, Implied, Resulting, and Inherent Powers
    • Bicameralism
  • Delegations of Legislative Power
    • Overview of Delegations of Legislative Power
    • Background on Delegating Legislative Power
    • Delegating Legislative Power to Fill Up the Details
    • Contingent Legislation and Nondelegation Doctrine
  • Nondelegation Doctrine
    • Historical Background on the Nondelegation Doctrine
    • Origin of the Intelligible Principle Standard
    • Nature and Scope of the Intelligible Principle Standard
    • Agency Discretion and Chevron Deference
    • Major Questions Doctrine and Canons of Statutory Construction
  • Categories of Legislative Delegations
    • Criminal Statutes and the Nondelegation Doctrine
    • Delegations of Foreign and Military Affairs to the President
    • States and Legislative Power Delegations
    • Quasi-Governmental Entities and Legislative Power Delegations
    • Private Entities and Legislative Power Delegations
    • Taxes and Delegations of Legislative Power
    • Individual Liberties and Delegations of Legislative Power
• Section 2 House of Representatives
  • Clause 1 Composition
    • Congressional Districts
    • Voter Qualifications for House of Representatives Elections
  • Clause 2 Member Qualifications
    • Overview of House Qualifications Clause
    • Ability of Congress to Change Qualifications for Members
    • Ability of States to Add Qualifications for Members
  • Clause 3 Allocation of Seats
    • Enumeration Clause and Apportioning Seats in the House of Representatives
  • Clause 4 Vacancies Clause
    • House Vacancies Clause
  • Clause 5 Impeachment
    • Impeachment Overview
    • Historical Background of Impeachment
    • Impeachment Doctrine
    • Alternatives to Impeachment
• Section 3 Senate
  • Clause 1 Composition
    • Equal Representation of States in the Senate
    • Historical Background on State Voting Rights in Congress
    • Selection of Senators by State Legislatures
    • Six-Year Senate Terms
  • Clause 2 Seats
    • Staggered Senate Elections
    • Senate Vacancies Clause
  • Clause 3 Qualifications
    • Overview of Senate Qualifications Clause
    • When Qualification Requirements Must Be Met
    • Ability of Congress to Change Senate Qualification Requirements
    • Ability of States to Add to Senate Qualification Requirements
  • Clause 4 President
    • President of the Senate
  • Clause 5 Officers
    • Senate Officers
  • Clause 6 Impeachment Trials
    • Overview of Impeachment Trials
    • Historical Background of Impeachment Trials
    • Impeachment Trial Practices
    • Oath or Affirmation Requirement in Impeachment Trials
    • Impeaching the President
  • Clause 7 Impeachment Judgments
    • Overview of Impeachment Judgments
    • Impeachment Judgment Doctrine
• Section 4 Congress
  • Clause 1 Elections Clause
    • Historical Background on the Elections Clause
    • States and the Elections Clause
    • Congress and the Elections Clause
  • Clause 2 Assembly
    • When Congress Shall Assemble
• Section 5 Proceedings
  • Clause 1 Authority
    • Congressional Authority over Elections, Returns, and Qualifications
    • Quorums in Congress
  • Clause 2 Rules
    • Rules, Punishments, and Expulsions
      • Congressional Proceedings and the Rulemaking Clause
      • Punishments and Expulsions from Congress
        • Overview of the Expulsion Clause
        • Historical Background of the Expulsion Clause
        • Judicial Interpretations of the Expulsion Clause
        • Misconduct That Occurred in Office
        • Misconduct Occurring Prior to Election or Reelection
        • House of Representatives Treatment of Prior Misconduct
        • Senate Treatment of Prior Misconduct
  • Clause 3 Records
    • Requirement that Congress Keep a Journal
  • Clause 4 Sessions
    • Adjournment of Congress
• Section 6 Rights and Disabilities
  • Clause 1 Compensation, Privileges, and Immunities
    • Compensation of Members of Congress
    • Privilege from Arrest
    • Speech or Debate Clause
      • Overview of the Speech or Debate Clause
      • Historical Background on the Speech or Debate Clause
      • Activities to Which the Speech or Debate Clause Applies
      • The Distraction Rationale and the Speech or Debate Clause
      • Treatment of Communications Outside the Legislative Process
      • The Subpoena Power and Congress
      • Persons Who Can Claim the Speech or Debate Privilege
  • Clause 2 Bar on Holding Federal Office
    • Overview of the Federal Office Prohibition
    • The Ineligibility Clause (Emoluments or Sinecure Clause) and Congress
    • The Incompatibility Clause and Congress
• Section 7 Legislation
  • Clause 1 Revenue
    • Origination Clause and Revenue Bills
  • Clause 2 Role of President
    • Presidential Approval or Veto of Bills
      • Overview of Presidential Approval or Veto of Bills
      • The Veto Power
      • Line Item Veto
      • Legislative Veto
  • Clause 3 Process
    • Presentation of Senate or House Resolutions
• Section 8 Enumerated Powers
  • Clause 1 General Welfare Clause
    • Taxation
      • Overview of the Taxing Clause
      • Historical Background of the Taxing Power
      • The Uniformity Clause and Indirect Taxes
      • Taxes to Regulate Conduct
      • The Intergovernmental Tax Immunity Doctrine
    • The Spending Power
      • Overview of the Spending Clause
      • Historical Background of the Spending Clause
      • Early Spending Clause Jurisprudence
      • Modern Spending Clause Jurisprudence Generally
      • Clear Notice Requirement and the Spending Clause
      • Anti-Coercion Requirement and the Spending Clause
      • The General Welfare, Relatedness, and Independent Constitutional Bars
  • Clause 2 Borrowing
    • Borrowing Power of Congress
  • Clause 3 Commerce
    • Overview of the Commerce Clause
    • Meaning of Commerce
    • Meaning of Among the Several States in the Commerce Clause
    • Meaning of Regulate in the Commerce Clause
    • Historical Background on the Commerce Clause Cases
      • The Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890 and the Sugar Trust Case
      • The Current of Commerce Concept and the 1905 Swift Case
      • The Packers and Stockyards Act of 1921 and the Grain Futures Act of 1922
      • New Deal Legislation Generally
      • National Industrial Recovery and Agricultural Adjustment Acts of 1933
      • Railroad Retirement and Securities Exchange Acts of 1934
      • Public Utility Holding Company and Bituminous Coal Conservation Acts of 1935
      • National Labor Relations Act of 1935
      • Agricultural Marketing Agreement Act of 1937
      • Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938
      • Dual Federalism and the Commerce Clause
    • Modern Interstate Commerce Clause Doctrine
      • United States v. Lopez and the Interstate Commerce Clause
      • Channels of Interstate Commerce
      • Persons or Things in and Instrumentalities of Interstate Commerce
      • Intrastate Activities Having a Substantial Relation to Interstate Commerce
      • Limits on Federal Regulation of Intrastate Activity
      • Regulation of Activity Versus Inactivity
      • Regulation of Interstate Commerce to Achieve Policy Goals
      • Civil Rights and the Commerce Clause
      • Criminal Law and the Commerce Clause
    • Dormant Commerce Clause
      • Overview of the Dormant Commerce Clause
      • Historical Background of the Dormant Commerce Clause
      • Early Dormant Commerce Clause Jurisprudence
      • Modern Dormant Commerce Clause Jurisprudence Generally
      • General Prohibition on Facial Discrimination
      • The State Proprietary Activity (Market Participant) Exception
      • Congressional Authorization of Otherwise Impermissible State Action
      • Facially Neutral Laws
      • Traditional Government Functions
      • Foreign Commerce and State Powers
      • State Taxation
        • Overview of State Taxation and the Dormant Commerce Clause
        • Early Dormant Commerce Clause Jurisprudence on State Taxation
        • Modern Dormant Commerce Clause Jurisprudence on State Taxation Generally
        • The Nexus Prong of the Complete Auto Test for Taxes on Interstate Commerce
        • The Apportionment Prong of the Complete Auto Test for Taxes on Interstate Commerce
        • The Discrimination Prong of the Complete Auto Test for Taxes on Interstate Commerce
        • The Benefit Prong of the Complete Auto Test for Taxes on Interstate Commerce
    • Foreign
      • Overview of Foreign Commerce Clause
      • Instruments of Commerce
    • Commerce With Native American Tribes: Scope of Authority
    • Commerce With Native American Tribes: Restrictions on State Powers
  • Clause 4 Naturalization and Bankruptcy Clauses
    • Naturalization
      • Overview of Naturalization Clause
      • Historical Background (1600-1820)
        • British and American Colonial Doctrine
        • The United States Constitution and the Naturalization Clause
        • Early U.S. Naturalization Laws
        • Naturalization as an Exclusive Power of Congress
        • Collective Naturalization (1800-1900)
      • Post-1900 Doctrine Generally
      • Children
        • Naturalization of Children Born Abroad
        • Rogers v. Bellei
        • Sessions v. Morales-Santana
      • Denaturalization
        • Denaturalization (Revocation of Citizenship) Generally
        • Early Jurisprudence on Congress’s Denaturalization Power
        • Limitations to Congress’s Denaturalization Power
        • Burden of Proving Unlawful Procurement of Citizenship
        • Standard to Establish Concealment of a Material Fact
      • Expatriation
        • Expatriation (Termination of Citizenship) Generally
        • Development and Interpretation of the Doctrine of Expatriation
        • Legislation Concerning Expatriation of U.S. Citizens
        • Initial Judicial Recognition of Congress’s Broad Power over Expatriation
        • Judicial Limitations on Congress’s Expatriation Power
    • Bankruptcy Clause
      • Overview of the Bankruptcy Clause
      • Historical Background on the Bankruptcy Clause
      • Scope of the Federal Bankruptcy Clause
      • Expansion of the Scope of the Bankruptcy Power
      • Constitutional Limitations on the Bankruptcy Power
      • Restriction on State Bankruptcy Power
  • Clause 5 Standards
    • Coinage Power
  • Clause 6 Counterfeiters
    • Counterfeiting Power
  • Clause 7 Post Offices
    • Postal Power: Historical Background
    • Power to Protect the Mails
    • Power to Prevent Harmful Use of Postal Facilities
    • Exclusive Power as an Adjunct to Other Powers
    • Restrictions on State Power
  • Clause 8 Intellectual Property
    • Overview of Congress's Power over Intellectual Property
    • Historical Background on the Intellectual Property Clause
      • English Origins of Intellectual Property Law
      • The Framing and Ratification of the Intellectual Property Clause
    • Copyrights
      • Authorship, Writings, and Originality
      • Limited Times and the Progress of Science
      • Copyright and the First Amendment
    • Patents
      • Inventorship and Utility
      • Patent-Eligible Subject Matter
      • Constitutional Constraints on Congressional Power over Granted Patents
    • Federal Power Over Trademarks
    • State Regulation of Intellectual Property
  • Clause 9 Courts
    • Inferior Federal Courts
  • Clause 10 Maritime Crimes
    • Clause 10 Maritime Crimes: Historical Background
    • Definition of Maritime Crimes and Offenses
    • Extraterritorial Reach
  • Clause 11 War Powers
    • Source of War Powers
    • Scope of Congress’s War Powers
    • Declarations of War
    • Enemy Property and Congress’s War Power
    • Prizes of War and Congress’s War Powers
  • Clause 12 To Raise and Maintain Armies
    • Historical Background on Congress’s Authority to Raise and Support Armies
    • Time Limit on Appropriations for the Army
    • Conscription
  • Clause 13 Navy Clause
    • The Navy
  • Clause 14 Land and Naval Force Rules
    • Care of the Armed Forces
    • Trial and Punishment of Servicemen (Courts-Martial)
    • Trial and Punishment of Civilians and Dependents
  • Clause 15 To Call Militias
    • Congress's Power to Call Militias
  • Clause 16 Organization of Militias
    • Congress’s Power to Organize Militias
  • Clause 17 Enclave Clause
    • The Capitol
      • Seat of Government Clause Historical Background
      • Seat of Government Doctrine and Practice
    • Places Purchased
      • Places Purchased Clause Overview
      • Federal Jurisdiction
      • Reservation of Jurisdiction by States
  • Clause 18 Necessary and Proper Clause
    • Overview of Necessary and Proper Clause
    • Historical Background of the Necessary and Proper Clause
    • Early Doctrine and McCulloch v. Maryland
    • Post-McCulloch Nineteenth Century Development
    • Twentieth Century to Present Doctrine
    • Meaning of Proper
    • Implied Power of Congress to Conduct Investigations and Oversight
      • Overview of Investigation and Oversight Power of Congress
      • Historical Background on Investigation and Oversight Power of Congress
      • Implied Power of Congress to Conduct Investigations and Oversight : Doctrine and Practice
        • Early Doctrine on Congressional Investigations and Oversight (1787-1864)
        • Postbellum and Pre-War Congressional Investigation and Oversight Doctrine (1865-1940)
        • Mid-Twentieth Century Congressional Investigation and Oversight Developments (1940-1970)
        • Rules-Based Limits of Congressional Investigations and Oversight
        • Limits of Congressional Investigations and Oversight Based on Individual Constitutional Rights
      • Modern Doctrine (1970-present)
        • Watergate, Church, and Pike Investigations of Congress
        • Congress's Investigatory Powers Generally
        • Congress's Investigatory Powers and the President
    • Immigration
      • Immigration : Overview
      • Immigration : Historical Background
        • English Common Law
        • Colonial Practice and Constitutional Convention
        • Early Federal Laws
      • Pre-Plenary Power Jurisprudence (1837–1889)
      • Early Plenary Power Jurisprudence (1889–1900)
      • Twentieth Century Plenary Power Doctrine
        • Twentieth Century Plenary Power Doctrine: Overview
        • Aliens in the United States
        • Aliens Seeking to Enter the United States
      • Modern Jurisprudence
        • Modern Jurisprudence: Overview
        • Exclusion of Aliens
        • Kerry v. Din and Trump v. Hawaii
        • Federal Laws Relating to Aliens
        • Immigration-Related State Laws
      • Conclusion
• Section 9 Powers Denied Congress
  • Clause 1 Migration or Importation Clause
    • Restrictions on the Slave Trade
  • Clause 2 Habeas Corpus
    • Suspension Clause and Writ of Habeas Corpus
  • Clause 3 Nullification of Procedural Protections
    • Historical Background on Bills of Attainder
    • Doctrine on Bills of Attainder
    • Ex Post Facto Laws
      • Overview of Ex Post Facto Laws
      • Historical Background on Ex Post Facto Laws
      • Retroactivity of Ex Post Facto Laws
      • Ex Post Facto Law Prohibition Limited to Penal Laws
      • Increasing Punishment and Ex Post Facto Laws
      • Imposing Criminal Liability and Ex Post Facto Laws
      • Civil Commitment, Sex Offender Registration, and Ex Post Facto Laws
      • Procedural Changes and Ex Post Facto Laws
      • Employment Qualifications and Ex Post Facto Laws
      • Retroactive Taxes and Ex Post Facto Laws
      • Ex Post Facto Prohibition Does Not Apply to Judicial Decisions
      • Ex Post Facto Laws, Deportation, and Related Issues
  • Clause 4 Direct Taxes
    • Overview of Direct Taxes
    • Historical Background of Direct Taxes
    • Early Precedent on Direct Taxes
    • Direct Taxes and the Sixteenth Amendment
  • Clause 5 Export Taxes
    • Export Clause and Taxes
  • Clause 6 Ports Preferences
    • Clause 6 Ports Preferences: Doctrine and Practice
  • Clause 7 Appropriations Clause
    • Overview of the Appropriations Clause
    • Historical Background of the Appropriations Clause
    • Appropriations Clause Doctrine and Practice
  • Clause 8 Foreign Emoluments and Titles of Nobility
    • Overview of the Foreign Emoluments and Titles of Nobility Clauses
    • Historical Background on the Foreign Emoluments Clause
    • The Foreign Emoluments Clause Generally
    • Titles of Nobility and the Constitution
• Section 10 Powers Denied States
  • Clause 1 Treaties, Coining Money, Impairing Contracts, etc.
    • Proscribed Powers
      • Foreign Policy by States
      • Coining Money by States
      • Legal Tender Issued by States
    • State Bills of Attainder
    • State Ex Post Facto Laws
    • Contract Clause and States
      • Overview of the Contract Clause
      • Historical Background on the Contract Clause
      • Evolution of the Contract Clause's Use
      • State Contracts
        • Early Cases on State Modifications to State Contracts
        • State Sovereign Powers and Contracts
        • Modern Doctrine on State Modifications to State Contracts
      • Private Contracts
        • Early Cases on State Modifications to Private Contracts
        • Blaisdell Case and State Modifications to Private Contracts
        • State Laws Creating New Contractual Obligations
        • The Public Interest and State Modifications to Private Contracts
  • Clause 2 Imports and Exports
    • Overview of the Import-Export Clause
    • Historical Background on the Import-Export Clause
    • Import-Export Clause Generally
    • Whether a Good Qualifies as an Import or Export
    • Whether a Charge Qualifies as an Impost or Duty
    • State Inspection Charges
  • Clause 3 Acts Requiring Consent of Congress
    • Duties of Tonnage
      • Overview and Historical Background on Duties of Tonnage
      • Determining Whether a Measure Qualifies as a Duty of Tonnage
      • Personal Property Taxes and Duties of Tonnage
    • States and Military Affairs
    • Compacts Clause
      • Overview of the Compact Clause
      • Historical Background of the Compact Clause
      • Subject Matter of Compacts
      • Congressional Consent to Compacts
      • Requirement of Congressional Consent to Compacts
      • Legal Effect and Interpretation of Compacts